![\"Table](\"{asset:194623:url||/assets/uploads/feature_images/Table-1.png}\")
Positive co-parenting is critical for parenting and child outcomes,\nespecially for new parents, who su9er from an increase in conflicts and\ndecreased marital relationships. Investigating the practices, strategies, and\nchallenges of new parents’ co-parenting, including collaborating,\nsupporting, and relating to each other, can help better understand this\nvulnerable parenting period.\n
\nWe report findings from an exploratory co-design workshop study with 2\npairs of parents and a new father who are interested in co-parenting and\nunpack their gratifications towards co-parenting apps. The study identifies\nthree main gratifications derived from co-parenting apps: (1) Shareability:\nThis feature allows parents to share various baby-related activities and\nupdates, fostering a sense of inclusion and family closeness, particularly\nfor parents who cannot be physically present. It addresses the cognitive\nneed for feeling included in the family's daily routines and activities through\nshared information, like baby schedules or photos. (2) Automation with\nHuman Agency: This gratification comes from the app's ability to automate\nthe expression of appreciation, which is crucial yet di9icult for parents\noverwhelmed by childcare responsibilities. The automation reduces the\ncognitive load on parents, enabling them to maintain emotional support\nand relationship strength without the added stress of remembering to\nexpress gratitude manually. (3) Visualization: Visualization tools within the\napp help parents become more aware of family dynamics and e9orts,\nwhich might otherwise go unnoticed. This feature can highlight\ncontributions and needs through visual aids like priority lists and shared\ncalendars, enhancing mutual understanding and appreciation among co-\nparents. It aims to foster a deeper sense of connection by making invisible\ne9orts visible and facilitating discussions around the division of labor and\nemotional support.\n
\nWe conclude with a discussion of the design implications and future work.\n
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "149969", "postDate": "2024-07-01T01:17:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 192485, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "23df4598-9d81-4e0d-8ef3-b53ef12e8888", "siteSettingsId": 202268, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 56141, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Unveiling the Nature of Generative AI Customization: Exploring Sense of Control, User Satisfaction, and Fact-Checking Intentions", "slug": "unveiling-the-nature-of-generative-ai-customization-exploring-sense-of-control-user-satisfaction-and-fact-checking-intentions", "uri": "medialab/research-article/unveiling-the-nature-of-generative-ai-customization-exploring-sense-of-control-user-satisfaction-and-fact-checking-intentions", "dateCreated": "2024-07-01T01:17:24-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2024-07-02T10:37:38-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 192485, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/unveiling-the-nature-of-generative-ai-customization-exploring-sense-of-control-user-satisfaction-and-fact-checking-intentions", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/unveiling-the-nature-of-generative-ai-customization-exploring-sense-of-control-user-satisfaction-and-fact-checking-intentions", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "192503": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Hui Min Lee", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "192504": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Peixin Hua", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "192505": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Rehab Alayoubi", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "INTRODUCTION
\nWhile generative AI platforms such as ChatGPT and Google Gemini are useful tools for sourcing information, they also pose risks in terms of their potential to generate misinformation. As these platforms evolve and develop, it is therefore important to understand how users interact with generative AI and process generated its content.
\nCustomization offers a way to increase perceived control over generated responses, improving user satisfaction, but also increasing source credibility and therefore, potentially reducing fact-checking intentions of generated content. Drawing on the agency model of customization (Sundar, 2008) and the HAII-TIME model (Sundar, 2020), this study therefore investigates how customizing generative AI responses influence user satisfaction and fact-checking intentions.
\nRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\nGeneral RQ: For individuals, controlling for use frequency, familiarity, attitude, and trust toward generative AI, what is the relationship between customizing Gemini responses and satisfaction with responses and fact-checking intentions?
\nH1: Customizing Gemini responses will increase user satisfaction.
\nRQ1: What is the relationship between customizing Gemini responses and fact-checking intentions?
\nH2: Customizing Gemini responses will increase sense of control, which is associated with higher satisfaction.
\nH3: Customizing Gemini responses will increase sense of control, which is associated with higher source credibility and subsequently lower fact-checking intentions.
\nH4: Customizing Gemini responses will increase heuristic processing, which is associated with higher source credibility and subsequently lower fact-checking intentions.
\nRQ2: What is the relationship between customizing Gemini responses, systematic processing, message credibility, and fact-checking intentions?
\nMETHOD
\nThis study conducted an online between-subjects experiment using Google’s generative AI chatbot, Gemini (gemini.google.com). Participants (N = 194) were recruited from SONA, and they were randomly assigned to one of the three conditions (No customization vs. Voluntary customization vs. Forced customization). All participants interacted with Gemini using four assigned prompts, each containing a different controversial health question that might cause participants to suspect the presence of misinformation. Participants in the voluntary and forced conditions were instructed to “feel free to explore customization options” or to “customize” the responses respectively. After the interaction, all participants answered a series of questions measuring dependent variables.
\nRESULTS
\nThis study investigated the effects of customizing generative AI responses on outcomes such as satisfaction and fact-checking intentions. The results showed that customization increased both satisfaction and source credibility via an increased sense of control. Furthermore, while fact-checking intentions were not affected by source credibility or type of processing, the increased sense of control due to customization also increased fact-checking intentions.
\nTable 1
\n Hypothesized Mediation Effects
![\"Figure](\"{asset:194624:url||/assets/uploads/feature_images/Figure-1.png}\")
CONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\nIn conclusion, we found that the sense of control mediated the relationship between customization and satisfaction, source credibility, and fact-checking intentions independently, meaning that although individuals perceived Gemini to be more credible as a result of customization, the sense of control induced also empowered users to verify generated responses. This has important implications for generative AI developers, suggesting that merely customizing the style of generative AI responses may lead to socially responsible usage of generative AI. We therefore urge future studies to extend this study to other generative AI platforms and explore the effects of other forms of customization.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "149969", "postDate": "2024-07-01T01:11:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 192469, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "290803ca-6b46-4b4c-848c-5ce17d7835f4", "siteSettingsId": 202252, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 56138, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Differences in Perception of Memes Based on Source: AI vs. Human", "slug": "differences-in-perception-of-memes-based-on-source-ai-vs-human", "uri": "medialab/research-article/differences-in-perception-of-memes-based-on-source-ai-vs-human", "dateCreated": "2024-07-01T01:11:30-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2024-07-01T01:16:56-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 192469, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/differences-in-perception-of-memes-based-on-source-ai-vs-human", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/differences-in-perception-of-memes-based-on-source-ai-vs-human", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "192477": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Clin KY Lai", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "192478": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Zheng Yao", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "INTRODUCTION
\nMemes are iconic cultural symbols with the potential to ‘go viral’ and hence enact impact on internet discourse and affect behaviors. With the rise of generative AI, it is increasingly difficult to distinguish between human-made and AI-generated content, which influences users' perceptions and trust in contents on the internet. Large social media companies such as Meta and Tiktok have proposed labeling contents as AI-generated as a solution to counter this. However, will such labels affect the perception of memes’ characteristics, especially those used to be considered as unique to humans?
\nRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\nH1: Memes labeled as human-generated will be have higher perceived: a) creativity, b) humor, c) positive and negative emotions, d) virality, and e) sharing intentions as compared to those labeled as AI-generated
\nH2: Positive machine heuristics will moderate the relationship between the condition (human-as-source vs ai-as-source condition) and perceived: a) creativity, b) humor, c) positive and negative emotions, d) virality, and e) sharing intentions
\nH3: Negative machine heuristics will moderate the relationship between the condition (human-as-source vs ai-as-source condition) and perceived: a) creativity, b) humor, c) positive and negative emotions, d) virality, and e) sharing intentions
\nMETHOD
\nDrawing upon the HAII-TIME theoretical framework, we explore how users perceive memes attributed to artificial intelligence (AI) or humans. In this experiment, before viewing the selected memes, participants were either told they will be viewing AI generated memes or human user generated memes. Then participants reported their perception of memes’ a) creativity, b) humor, c) positive and negative emotions, d) virality, e) their sharing intentions and f) machine heuristics. Multiple ANCOVA analyses were adopted to examine the main effect of source attribution and the moderation effects of machine heuristics.
\nRESULTS
\nContrary to initial hypotheses, source labeling had no impact on participant evaluations, suggesting that content take precedence over creator attribution in meme perception. However, negative machine heuristics emerged as a potential moderator. Users with negative views of AI were less likely to perceive AI-generated memes as humorous, F(1, 114) = 3.69, p = .06 or creative, F(1, 114) =3.87, p = .05. Unexpectedly, positive machine heuristics also appear to play a significant role, predicting perceived virality, F(1, 114) = 4.60, p = .03, humor, F(1, 115) = 3.93, p =.05, and negative affect, F(1, 114) = 5.05, p = .03.
\nCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\nThis research investigated the interaction between AI-generated memes, user perceptions, and perceptions of online content (memes). While the study did not conclusively support the hypothesis that source label (human vs. AI) significantly impacts meme evaluation, it suggests a robustness of meme perception, where content attributes outweigh creator attribution in driving perceptions. However, the research identified negative machine heuristics as a potential moderator. Users with negative views of AI were less likely to perceive AI-generated memes as funny or creative. Interestingly, positive machine heuristics also emerged as an unexpected predictor of perceived virality, humor, and even negative affect. From a practical standpoint, the findings highlight the importance of more research into how the labeling for AI-generated content affects user perceptions. Further research is warranted to explore the multifaceted effects of content labeling on user perceptions and behaviors across diverse online environments. By addressing these limitations and pursuing future research avenues, they offer valuable insights that can contribute to the ongoing conversation about how content labels shape user perceptions and behaviors.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "149969", "postDate": "2024-07-01T01:04:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 192456, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "1a18b5e0-ddf3-46d9-8120-35c4c458a640", "siteSettingsId": 202239, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 56136, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "@VirtualInfluencer – Modality and Influencer Credibility of Virtual Influencers", "slug": "virtualinfluencer-modality-and-influencer-credibility-of-virtual-influencers", "uri": "medialab/research-article/virtualinfluencer-modality-and-influencer-credibility-of-virtual-influencers", "dateCreated": "2024-07-01T01:04:22-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2024-07-01T01:17:11-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 192456, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/virtualinfluencer-modality-and-influencer-credibility-of-virtual-influencers", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/virtualinfluencer-modality-and-influencer-credibility-of-virtual-influencers", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "192464": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Alice Nguyen", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "192465": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Matt Checchio", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "INTRODUCTION
Artificial intelligence (AI) has experienced rapid advancement in recent years giving rise to a new category of influencers known as Virtual Influencers. Our study examines virtual social media influencers and the difference in modality between image and video when it comes to influencer credibility. We theorize that an image followed by a video post of a virtual influencer will increase influencer credibility as opposed to just seeing an image. Furthermore, a parallel mediation of perceived realism and eeriness will mediate the relationship along with anthropomorphism as a moderator.
RESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\nFor adults over 18 viewing Instagram posts featuring virtual influencers, controlling for social media use, what is the relationship between modality, anthropomorphism of influencer, and influencer credibility?
\nH1: An image followed by a video post of a virtual influencer will increase influencer credibility as opposed to just seeing an image.
\nH2a: Perceived realism will mediate the relationship between modality and influencer credibility.
\nH2b: Eeriness will mediate the relationship between modality and influencer credibility.
\nH3: Anthropomorphism moderates the relationship between modality and influencer credibility.
\nMETHOD
\nWe conducted a 2 (modality: image vs. picture) x 2 (anthropomorphism: high vs. low) mixed factorial design. Anthropomorphism was manipulated between-subject, and modality was manipulated within-subject. The experimental design included a mixture of scales to measure variables in credibility, perceived realism, eeriness, and a control for habitual social media usage. For hypothesis 1 and 3, we employed repeated measures MANOVA and for hypothesis 2 used PROCESS Macro for mediation effects (Model 4).
\nRESULTS
\nFor H1, we found modality has a significant effect on credibility. For H3, the interaction effect between modality and anthropomorphism is significant. Perceived realism fully mediated the relationship between modality and influencer credibility, supporting H2a, but perceived eeriness did not mediate the relationship between modality and influencer credibility.
\nCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\nOur results support the ideas of virtual influencers and credibility between image and video modalities. When viewing an image of a virtual influencer, there is no difference in credibility between high and low anthropomorphism. However, for video, credibility increases for high anthropomorphism. Therefore, for practical implications, high anthropomorphic influencers should use both image and video to increase credibility in the marketing context. Finally, our study was limited with the internal validity of study design to pair stimuli accordingly and only using female virtual influencers.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "98081", "postDate": "2023-08-23T20:42:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 152124, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "c56c1a2e-47da-4056-b4a5-ada622fb3b1c", "siteSettingsId": 161633, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 52070, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Effects of Modality of Misinformation and Debunking on Message Credibility and Memory Recall", "slug": "effects-of-modality-of-misinformation-and-debunking-on-message-credibility-and-memory-recall", "uri": "medialab/research-article/effects-of-modality-of-misinformation-and-debunking-on-message-credibility-and-memory-recall", "dateCreated": "2023-08-23T20:42:17-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2023-08-23T20:48:03-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 152124, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/effects-of-modality-of-misinformation-and-debunking-on-message-credibility-and-memory-recall", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/effects-of-modality-of-misinformation-and-debunking-on-message-credibility-and-memory-recall", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "152146": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Eunchae Jang", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "152147": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Tim Prestby", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "152148": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Andrew Pacheco", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "Introduction
\nThis study investigates how different forms of misinformation (i.e., text versus text + image, text + map) affect people’s perceived credibility and recall of the misinformation. We are especially interested in how satellite maps may be perceived as more credible and foster greater recall compared to other forms if misinformation. It also explores the effectiveness of debunking in the form of fact-checking on calibrating people’s credibility judgements and influencing their memory of the misinformation.
\nResearch Questions + Hypotheses
\nH1: Text + Satellite map image conditions will have higher message credibility than Text + Ground image conditions.
\nH2: Text + Satellite map image and Text + Ground image conditions will have higher message credibility than Text-only conditions.
\nH3: Realism heuristic will mediate the relationship between modality and message credibility.
\nH4: Authority heuristic will mediate the relationship between modality and message credibility.
\nH5: Individuals who read debunking news will show lower levels of message credibility than people who do not read debunking news.
\nH6: Text + Ground image and Text + Satellite map image conditions will show higher memory recall than Text-only conditions.
\nRQ1: What is the relationship between exposure to debunking news and memory recall?
\nRQ2: When individuals are exposed to debunking news compared to no exposure to debunking news, what is the relationship between modality and credibility?
\nRQ3: When individuals are exposed to debunking news compared to no exposure to debunking news, what is the relationship between modality and memory recall?
\nMethod
\nWe conducted a 3 (modality: text vs. text + ground image vs. text + satellite map) × 2 (debunking: no debunking vs. debunking) between-subjects factorial experiment for pre-test. A four to seven days after the pre-test, a post-test was conducted with the same sample and measured dependent variables (message credibility and memory recall). Participants (N = 317) were recruited from CloudConnect.
\nParticipants were randomly assigned to view a misinformation news article about a fire in Central park in text format, text + ground image format, or text + map format. Participants were also randomly assigned to view a second article that debunked the first news article or not.
\nFigure 1
\nStimuli
![\"\"](\"{asset:152149:url||/assets/uploads/Picture1.png}\")
Note. Stimuli for modality conditions: misinformation news article of a Central Park fire (left). Debunking article stimuli (right)
\nParticipants then answered questions about perceived credibility, mediating variables including the authority and realism heuristic, and recall. Participants then answered questions on demographics and control variables. We conducted ANCOVA, repeated measure ANCOVA, multinomial logistic regression, and Hayes Process Macro to test our hypotheses and research questions.
\nResults
\nFirst, the results showed that there was no main effect of modality on message credibility. There also was not an interaction effect between modality and debunking, and mediation effects of realism heuristic and authority heuristic on the relationship between modality and message credibility were not significant. However, we found a significant main effect of debunking on message credibility immediately after exposure to debunking and over time. That is, exposure to debunking significantly reduced message credibility immediately and over time. Moreover, exposure to debunking news significantly increased the likelihood of accurately remembering correct information compared to no exposure to debunking news. Interestingly, when people did not read debunking news, visual modalities conditions (ground image and satellite map) showed a decrease in message credibility over time compared to text modality condition, while it did not differ when people read debunking news.
\nConclusion/Discussion
\nOur results contrast prior studies as we did not find a significant effect of modality of misinformation on recall or credibility. However, these results may be a product of the single topic we tested and/or the unrealistic news consumption environment of our experiment. Our work builds on prior findings demonstrating that debunking, specifically, fact-checking, can be effective in lowering people’s perceived credibility of misinformation. Interestingly, we found that perceived credibility declined over time for the no-debunking conditions, only for visual modalities. This may be due to the visual modalities cuing heuristic processing that leads to less strong memory retention compared to text and no debunking failing to reinforce the information. Our findings may expand on the theory of the MAIN Model in that that the effects of realism heuristic may be weakened if the message is too sensational. Moreover, we provide guidance on how to effectively debunk misinformation with factchecking.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "98081", "postDate": "2023-08-23T20:40:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 152111, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "008319ce-6a6c-4cbd-a5b3-ddc5e9741459", "siteSettingsId": 161620, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 52068, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Understanding Algorithmic Memory Suggestions", "slug": "understanding-algorithmic-memory-suggestions", "uri": "medialab/research-article/understanding-algorithmic-memory-suggestions", "dateCreated": "2023-08-23T20:40:53-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2024-07-02T12:39:04-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 152111, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/understanding-algorithmic-memory-suggestions", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/understanding-algorithmic-memory-suggestions", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "152119": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jeff Brozena", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "152120": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Keerthana Govindarazan", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "The ubiquitous global adoption of photography has brought social, cultural, and technological consequences. Reduced costs of photographic capture and storage have led to a dramatic increase in the total number of photographs taken by individuals, and these effects were only amplified by the societal distribution of the smartphone. However, many photographs are still taken with long-term retrieval as a primary goal.
\nAdvances in algorithmic curation and retrieval have been shown to offset the burdens of increased collection size. For example, chronological views (“timelines”) of a photo collection offer an intuitive, sometimes serendipitous method of photo retrieval that often leads to further exploration of a personal collection. However, less is known about how these algorithmic methods represent users’ primary motives for capture, namely, long-term retrieval.
\nThis study seeks to examine perceived interactions with memory suggestions as they relate to past interaction with photo collections, finding these past interactions to be highly associated with perceived engagement, enjoyment, and utility of hypothetical memory suggestions.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "98081", "postDate": "2023-08-21T04:04:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 151062, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "8ebb9287-c737-4f4f-9474-6e47b422f745", "siteSettingsId": 160539, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 51850, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The Role of Modality in Returning to Normal Conversation after a Conflict", "slug": "the-role-of-modality-in-returning-to-normal-conversation-after-a-conflict", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-role-of-modality-in-returning-to-normal-conversation-after-a-conflict", "dateCreated": "2023-08-21T04:04:35-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2023-08-21T04:07:12-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 151062, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-role-of-modality-in-returning-to-normal-conversation-after-a-conflict", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-role-of-modality-in-returning-to-normal-conversation-after-a-conflict", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "151070": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "DJ Barger", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "151071": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Julian Canjura", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "This paper was based on a project as part of the Psychological Aspects of Communication Technology (COMM 517) course.
\nINTRODUCTION
\nOur study examines how couples return to normal communication after a conflict. We look at the choice of mode for this conversation and the perceptions of affordances for the chosen mode. We theorize that some types of people may value the things they can do with technology more than the things they receive from in-person communication, thus causing them to want to use a mediated mode of communication.
\nRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\nRQ1: What communicative modalities do participants utilize in initiating reconciliatory actions with their romantic partner after an argument or conflict?
\nRQ2: How do participants perceive utilized modalities, their affordances, and how those affordances contribute to or facilitate their reconciliatory actions?
\nMETHOD
\nWe used a survey with a mixture of scale variables, measures, categorical demographic questions, and open-response questions. The open-ended questions asked participants to talk about why they chose a particular mode and what was said. The close-ended responses asked about perceptions of affordances.
\nRESULTS
\nFor RQ1, we found that our participants mainly used just face-to-face and texting for these conversations. For RQ2, we found that participants who used texting tended to find it higher in conversation control, editability, and persistence. Participants who used face-to-face found it higher in bandwidth and social presence. Separately, we found that many participants preferred to use a different mode than they did, but said convenience or proximity caused them to use the mode they did.
\nCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\nOur results support the ideas of modality weaving and mode integration. Participants used the modes available to them at the time, even though they may have preferred something else. A future study could investigate this phenomenon further and quantitatively extend the concepts of modality weaving and communicative interdependence. The study may also give ideas to couples wishing to improve their conflict, possibly by integrating different modes of communication in a way that works for them. Finally, our study was limited by its scope. Our sample size was too small to make generalizations, but big enough to have potential implications and takeaways.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "98081", "postDate": "2023-08-21T04:02:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 151049, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "5d6e0db3-0e63-49fb-bf7f-edfd47e5d0e0", "siteSettingsId": 160526, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 51848, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "How does user location affect viewers’ affective and cognitive responses to self-disclosure on social media? The mediating role of perceived homophily", "slug": "how-does-user-location-affect-viewers-affective-and-cognitive-responses-to-self-disclosure-on-social-media-the-mediating-role-of-perceived-homophily", "uri": "medialab/research-article/how-does-user-location-affect-viewers-affective-and-cognitive-responses-to-self-disclosure-on-social-media-the-mediating-role-of-perceived-homophily", "dateCreated": "2023-08-21T04:02:02-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2023-08-21T04:04:15-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 151049, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/how-does-user-location-affect-viewers-affective-and-cognitive-responses-to-self-disclosure-on-social-media-the-mediating-role-of-perceived-homophily", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/how-does-user-location-affect-viewers-affective-and-cognitive-responses-to-self-disclosure-on-social-media-the-mediating-role-of-perceived-homophily", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "151057": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Yansheng Liu", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "151058": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jingshi Kang (visiting scholar)", "degreeCandidacy": null } } }, "researchAbstract": "INTRODUCTION
\nIn March 2022, China’s government released a policy requiring social media platforms to reveal users’ approximate geospatial location. To understand the psychological implication of this policy, this study investigated how user location displayed on social media posts affects audiences psychologically. Specifically, we chose the context of online self-disclosure on mental health issues to illustrate how user location shapes viewers’ affective and cognitive responses related to online social support, including source liking, empathy, message credibility, perceived social distance, and intention to interact with the message. We also examined whether perceived homophily and/or perceived spatial distance mediates the relationship between user location and these outcome variables.
\nRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\nH1: User location affects (H1a) general homophily, as well as the three specific dimensions: (H1b) attitude homophily, (H1c) value homophily, (h1d) background homophily.
\nH2: User location affects (H2a) source liking, (H2b) empathy, (H2c) message credibility, (H2d) perceived social distance, and (H2e) intention to interact with the message.
\nH3: Perceived homophily mediates the relationship between location cue and (H3a) source liking, (H3b) empathy, (H3c) message credibility, (H3d) perceived social distance, and (H3e) intention to interact with the message.
\nH4: Perceived spatial distance mediates the relationship between location cue and (H4a) source liking, (H4b) empathy, (H4c) message credibility, (H4d) perceived social distance, and (H4e) intention to interact with the message.
\nMETHOD
\nA 4 (user location: Beijing vs. Guizhou vs. US vs. Control) × 2 (topic: family of origin vs. peer pressure) between-subjects online experiment was designed to test the proposed hypotheses. Participants (N = 240) were recruited in China through the online survey platform Credamo.
\nRESULTS
\nWe found that user location significantly affects perceived homophily towards the information source, which in turn affects viewers’ affective evaluations such as source liking, empathy, and perceived social distance. However, we did not find any main effect of user location on any outcome variables. In addition, although previous research suggests that perceived spatial distance matters in social impact, our study did not find support for the hypothesis that perceived spatial distance mediates the effect of user location on any outcome variables
\nCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\nThis study shows that viewers’ perceived homophily varies both across different locations within China and between China and another country – the US, and perceived homophily mediates the relationship between user location and audiences' affective responses toward the source. This suggests that user location serves as an agency cue that triggers homophily heuristic. Also, our testing of theoretical models demonstrates that it is the perceived homophily, instead of perceived spatial distance, that matters in how user location influences viewers’ psychologically. Finally, this study also has policy implications by revealing that displaying user location might trigger some unwanted consequences (e.g., relativelyless liking and empathy) towards users from certain locations through the mechanism of perceived homophily.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "98081", "postDate": "2023-08-21T03:56:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 151020, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "f23e5223-c816-4b33-9097-ff85a71c8423", "siteSettingsId": 160497, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 51846, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "U&G Study for Photo Memory Notification", "slug": "u-g-study-for-photo-memory-notification", "uri": "medialab/research-article/u-g-study-for-photo-memory-notification", "dateCreated": "2023-08-21T03:56:31-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2023-08-21T11:37:42-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 151020, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/u-g-study-for-photo-memory-notification", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/u-g-study-for-photo-memory-notification", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "151042": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Keerthana Govindarazan", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "151043": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Kumari Davis", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "151044": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Soumita Mukherjee", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "Introduction
\nThis study\ndelves into the uses and gratifications of photo memory notifications (PMNs) in\nthe context of digital photo applications on smartphones. PMNs serve as\nreminders of past events, experiences, and personal connections, often\ntriggering a range of emotional responses and providing opportunities for users\nto revisit and share memories. Utilizing a mixed-methods approach that combines\nqualitative and quantitative research techniques, this research aims to uncover\nthe underlying motivations, usage patterns, and gratifications users derive\nfrom engaging with these notifications. The primary goal of the present study was to examine the\nuses and gratifications of PMNs and memory suggestions curated by smartphone\ngallery applications, as well as to understand the behavioral and psychological\neffects they have on users.
\nRQ1: What gratifications do\nindividuals seek when interacting with photo memory notifications?
\nRQ2: How do these\ngratifications influence people's engagement with the photo memory\nnotifications (PMNs) and other behavior outcomes?
\nRQ3: How do these\ngratifications influence people psychologically and overall well-being?
\nWe take a\ntraditional approach to uses and gratifications to assess the content-oriented\ngratifications derived from these photo memories. We also take a U&G 3.0\n(Chen et al., 2023) approach to understand the automation gratifications associated\nwith automatic curation and retrieval of photo memories.
\nMethod
\nTo achieve this, we\nemployed a two-phase research design. In the first phase, we conducted in-depth\ninterviews with smartphone users to gain insights into their experiences with\nPMNs and identify the various gratifications they derive from these\nnotifications. In the second phase, we developed a survey instrument based on\nthe findings from the interviews and administered it to a larger sample of\nsmartphone users to quantify the prevalence of the identified gratifications\nand examine their relationships with users' engagement with PMNs.
\nResults
\nThrough our\nqualitative analysis, we identified seven distinct gratifications associated\nwith PMNs: nostalgia, convenience, user control, social interaction,\nentertainment, escapism, and reflection. Nostalgia emerged as a dominant theme,\nas users reported that PMNs often evoked feelings of longing for the past and\nallowed them to reminisce about cherished memories. Convenience and user control\nwere also highlighted as important factors, as users appreciated the automated\ncuration of memories by their smartphone galleries and the ability to customize\ntheir notification settings to suit their preferences.
\nSocial interaction emerged\nas a key gratification and a significant predictor of user engagement with\nPMNs. The content of these notifications acted as conversation starters with\nfriends and family, both near and far, enabling users to maintain and\nstrengthen their social relationships. This gratification encourages users to\nmake future plans with loved ones, capture more photos, and share previously\nunshared images.
\nEntertainment and escapism\nwere identified as additional gratifications derived from engaging with PMNs.\nUsers reported that they found the content of these notifications enjoyable and\nentertaining, and that they often served as a welcome distraction from daily\nstresses and routines. Reflection was another notable gratification, as users\nvalued the opportunity to reflect on personal growth and change over time, as\nwell as to gain new perspectives on past experiences.
\nOur quantitative analysis\nconfirmed the prevalence of the identified gratifications among smartphone\nusers and revealed that social interaction gratification was indeed a\nsignificant predictor of engagement with PMNs. This finding can be attributed\nto the notion that reminiscing as a social activity is generally a\nwell-received form of conversation, as people thrive on human interaction and\nmeaningful connections.
\nConclusion
\nThis study\ncontributes valuable insights into the motivations and gratifications that\ndrive users to engage with photo memory notifications in smartphone digital\nphoto applications. Our findings have important implications for the design and\ndevelopment of digital photo applications, as they highlight the need to\nconsider the diverse gratifications sought by users and to provide features and\nfunctionalities that support these gratifications. Furthermore, our research\nsheds light on the potential of PMNs as tools for promoting social interaction\nand fostering connections between individuals. As technology continues to\nevolve and shape our lives, it is essential to understand how these innovations\ncan be harnessed to enhance our well-being and foster meaningful relationships.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "98081", "postDate": "2023-08-21T03:53:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 150991, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "12719ba0-1977-448a-8b67-1ef08bead26e", "siteSettingsId": 160468, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 51844, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Effects of Conversational Partner, Message Interactivity, and Group Identity on Mental Health Disclosure Intention", "slug": "effects-of-conversational-partner-message-interactivity-and-group-identity-on-mental-health-disclosure-intention", "uri": "medialab/research-article/effects-of-conversational-partner-message-interactivity-and-group-identity-on-mental-health-disclosure-intention", "dateCreated": "2023-08-21T03:53:59-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2023-08-21T03:56:24-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 150991, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/effects-of-conversational-partner-message-interactivity-and-group-identity-on-mental-health-disclosure-intention", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/effects-of-conversational-partner-message-interactivity-and-group-identity-on-mental-health-disclosure-intention", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "151013": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Eunchae Jang", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "151014": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Yansheng Liu", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "151015": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "DongWook Jeong", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "This paper was based on a project as part of the “COMM506: Research Methods in Communications” course.
\nINTRODUCTION
\nMental health problems became prevalent, which could cause severe self-injuries. It is known that disclosure has benefits; however, some people hesitate to disclose their mental health issues to others. This study investigated individuals’ willingness to disclose their mental health-related problems under different conditions, the identity of the conversational partner (AI/human), message interactivity (high/low), and group identity (in-group/out-group).
\nRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\nH1: Participants in AI conditions will be more likely to disclose their mental health problems than those in human conditions.
\nH2: Participants in the high interactivity condition are more likely to disclose their mental health problems than those in the low-interactivity condition.
\nH3: The relationship stated in H1 would be pronounced in the high interactivity conditions than the low interactivity conditions.
\nRQ1: For individuals, controlling for AI usage, existing stress level, and US affiliation, what is the relationship between types of group identity of therapist (in-group vs. out-group) and the degree of disclosure intention?
\nRQ2: Is there an interaction effect between group identity and interactivity on self-disclosure intention?
\nRQ3: Is there an interaction effect between identity of conversational partner and group identity on disclosure intention?
\nRQ4: Is there a three-way interaction effect between identity of conversational partner, message interactivity, and group identity?
\nMETHOD
\nThis study conducted an online experiment with a 2 (conversational partner: AI vs. human) x 2 (interactivity: high vs. low) x 2 (group identity: ingroup vs. outgroup) between-subject designs. We recruited 174 US citizens as participants, and they were randomly assigned to one of the eight conditions. After watching the stimulus (see Figure 1[1]), participants were asked to complete a questionnaire that included the manipulation check questions, dependent variable, and control variables.
\nRESULTS
\nA three-way analysis of covariance(ANCOVA ) was run to examine the relationship between conversational partner, message interactivity, group identity, and disclosure intention when controlling AI usage, existing depression, and US affiliation. The results show that the main effect of message interactivity was marginally significant. Participants in the high interactivity condition showed a slightly higher disclosure intention than those in the low interactivity condition. In addition, this study ran the PROCESS macro (model 4) to examine the mediation role of perceived contingency on the relationship between message interactivity and disclosure intention. In other words, high message interactivity led to greater perceived contingency, which in turn increased the disclosure intention.
\nCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\nThis study investigates how the identity of conversation partners, message interactivity, and group identity affect disclosure intention in the context of mental health. Even though the current study could not find any significant effects except interactivity, the direction of effects was consistent with the proposed hypotheses. First, the mean values of the AI condition were higher than the human condition. This supports the previous findings that facilitating AI therapists can help reduce people’s mental health problems; however, this also aligns with the findings from other research that showed no differential effect of the conversational partner, supporting the Computer as Social Actors paradigm that people apply the same social rules when interacting with computers. Second, although interactivity was marginally significant, it can be said that users could be more likely to disclose when they feel that the therapist is contingently responding to their words while responding quickly. Lastly, one possible reason for the nonsignificant effect of group identity could be due to the severity level. Mild symptoms of depression might not have been enough for participants to consider their negative evaluations from others or stigmatization. However, this study is not free from limitations, such as stimuli, the severity level of mental health problems, and the manipulation of group identity as nationality. Furthermore, it is recommended for future studies to conduct longitudinal studies to show more relational outcomes with conversational partners because it is known that people build intimacy by increasing the degree of self-disclosure over time.
Introduction
\nThis study intends to address the issue of lack of uptake for lean construction, a production management approach aimed to reduce waste and improve efficiency. Accordingly, we investigated how visualizations the framing of visualization titles can influence people’s attitudes toward lean construction and people’s assessment of message credibility.
\nResearch Question/Hypothesis
\nRQ1: For construction managers, controlling for the sample group, familiarity with lean, and familiarity with information graphics, what is the relationship between the modality (text or text + visualizations) and degree of positive attitude toward Lean Construction and level of perceived credibility?
\nRQ2: For construction managers, controlling for the sample group, familiarity with lean, and familiarity with information graphics, what is the relationship between information slant, presented in conjunction with an illustrative story of lean, and user perceptions of credibility and attitudes?
\nH1: Participants who view text + visualizations will report more positive attitudes toward lean than participants who view just text.
\nH2: Participants who view text + visualizations will report higher perceived credibility than participants who view just text.
\nH3: Participants who view contradictory information will report lower perceived credibility than participants who view consistent information.
\nH4: Participants who view contradictory information will report more negative attitudes toward lean than participants who view consistent information.
\nMethod
\nWe conducted a post-manipulation between-subjects online experiment with a sample of 87 participants from CloudConnect (N=40) and Penn State Architectural Engineering (N=47). Demographic information is presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1.\nParticipant Demographics by Sampling Group (PSU Students and Cloud)
\nParticipants were randomly assigned to view one of the three longform stories (Figure 2) with varying conditions of the independent variables before answering a questionnaire. The questionnaire included 7-point Likert-type questions that measured reactions to the story including attitude (M=4.23, SD=0.65), perceived credibility (M=4.07, SD=1.1), perceived understanding (M=4.67, SD=0.88), and control variables including familiarity with lean construction and infographics. We conducted MANCOVA tests and LSMeans Tukey’s HSD to analyze our data.
Figure 2. Stimuli in Study: Frames of the Longform Stories
\nResults
\nThe MANCOVA tests investigating hypotheses 1-4 did not yield any statistically significant results. For each MANCOVA test associated with the hypotheses, the corresponding LSMeans Tukey’s HSD tests indicated that there was no significant difference between dependent variables (attitude and credibility). However, we did find significant interaction effects between information slant and familiarity with lean on attitude (F = 10.50, DF = 1, p < 0.01) (Figure 3) and understanding (F = 4.27, DF = 1, p = 0.04).
Figure 3. Interaction Between Familiarity with Lean and Slant on Attitude
\nConclusions/Discussion
\nOur results indicate that modality did not have any effect on people’s attitudes toward lean and perceived credibility of information. The inclusion of visualizations may not have elevated attitude change and perceived credibility as the combination of visualizations and text may have resulted in cognitive overload for readers as they fail to process the two modes of communication simultaneously (Broadbent, 1958). Information slant may not have affected people’s attitudes and perceived credibility due to the visualization being nested within a larger story that is framed according to a single side: advocating for lean construction. The found interactions suggest that different communication approaches should be taken depending on the independent audience’s familiarity with a subject and familiarity with a communication medium.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "98081", "postDate": "2023-08-21T02:15:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 150950, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "c146a20e-2052-488c-873d-8204504111fa", "siteSettingsId": 160427, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 51840, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Matters of Modality: Pro-environmental Behavior and Information Sharing Intentions of a Sustainability Message", "slug": "matters-of-modality-pro-environmental-behavior-and-information-sharing-intentions-of-a-sustainability-message", "uri": "medialab/research-article/matters-of-modality-pro-environmental-behavior-and-information-sharing-intentions-of-a-sustainability-message", "dateCreated": "2023-08-21T02:15:07-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2023-08-21T02:18:11-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 150950, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/matters-of-modality-pro-environmental-behavior-and-information-sharing-intentions-of-a-sustainability-message", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/matters-of-modality-pro-environmental-behavior-and-information-sharing-intentions-of-a-sustainability-message", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "150966": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Megan Norman", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "150967": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jiaqi (Agnes) Bao", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "150968": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Triwik Kurniasari", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "INTRODUCTION
\nOver past decades, human activities have continued to cause environmental degradation and contribute to climate change. In today’s world, it is essential to communicate sustainability-related issues as effectively as possible to encourage the public to protect the environment. The use of visualizations or informational graphics (infographics) has become increasingly popular in conveying information, as infographics are considered to be attention-grabbers, particularly in the digital era. This study investigates the role of modality—text-only messages and infographics—not only to convey messages, but also to see how individuals would potentially engage in pro-environmental actions. By using cue summation theory and the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM), we also examine perceived visual informativeness as a mediator between modality and intentions for pro-environmental behavior and information sharing intentions using a message stimulus about recycling and waste-reduction behaviors.
\nRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\nRQ: For consumers, what is the relationship between modality (text or text + graphics) and pro-environment behavioral intentions and sharing intentions?
\nH1: Participants who view the infographic will report higher levels of pro-environmental behavior than participants assigned to view the text-only flyer version.
\nH2: Participants who view the infographic will report higher levels of sharing intentions than participants assigned to view the text-only flyer version.
\nH3: Perceived visual informativeness will mediate the effects of modality (text or text + graphics) on intentions of pro-environmental behavior and information sharing.
\nMETHOD
\nWe conducted an online, between-subjects experiment using Qualtrics and recruited respondents through Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk). We recruited 150 participants in the United States, and they were compensated $0.10 for completing the survey. Participants were randomly assigned to one condition (infographic or text-only) and were asked to carefully view the stimulus for 30 seconds before answering 18 multiple-choice questions. Questions included manipulation checks, perceived visual informativeness, information sharing intentions, pro-environmental behavioral intentions, and demographic information.
\nRESULTS
\nAfter running a series of T-tests, for H1 and H2, we found that the infographic condition scored higher than the text-only condition on pro-environmental behavioral intentions and sharing intentions. However, there were no significant direct effects between modality (infographics vs. text only) and either of the dependent variables— pro-environmental behavior and sharing intentions. For H3, a mediation analysis controlling for demographic variables showed a significant indirect effect between modality and sharing intentions. Therefore, H3 was supported and perceived visual informativeness was found to mediate modality and pro-environmental behavioral intentions and modality and sharing intentions. Although the results showed no differences between modality and intentions for pro-environmental behavior and information-sharing, the mean scores of the participants assigned to the multimodality condition (text + graphic) were slightly higher than the participants assigned with single modality condition (text-only). From this perspective, the results partially supported the cue summation theory that multimodality communication is more effective than a single mode of presentation. “Place Figure01 here”
\nCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\nUsing a cue summation and ELM framework, we found a significant indirect effect between modality through perceived visual informativeness and pro-environmental behavior and sharing intentions. Practitioners and scholars are encouraged to consider the perception of visual informativeness of sustainability-focused messages, especially of messages that can be packaged and shared easily on social media. Dissemination of visual communication has implications for effectively communicating environmental issues, such as recycling behaviors, to the public to prevent further environmental degradation. Especially in the context of climate change, developing better graphical representations is vital to spreading information and encouraging people to take action and live a greener lifestyle.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "98081", "postDate": "2023-08-21T02:12:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 150940, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "6716e4d1-187b-4fde-9bbd-62a896aef701", "siteSettingsId": 160417, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 51838, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Perceived issue importance, social media platforms, and online activism: Different relationships on four socio-political issues", "slug": "perceived-issue-importance-social-media-platforms-and-online-activism-different-relationships-on-four-socio-political-issues", "uri": "medialab/research-article/perceived-issue-importance-social-media-platforms-and-online-activism-different-relationships-on-four-socio-political-issues", "dateCreated": "2023-08-21T02:12:12-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2023-08-21T02:14:33-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 150940, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/perceived-issue-importance-social-media-platforms-and-online-activism-different-relationships-on-four-socio-political-issues", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/perceived-issue-importance-social-media-platforms-and-online-activism-different-relationships-on-four-socio-political-issues", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "150947": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Gelan (Evelyn) Yin", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "Online activism is a significant way of people being informed of, discussing, and acting on contentious topics. Thus it is important to look into the question of how people are engaged in online actions. Although the relationship between online and offline activism is under great scrutiny, the leading factors of people to participate online has not been enough studied, not to mention the uniqueness across platforms and issue categories. Drawing on the notion of issue publics and techno-social affordances, this study focuses on the relationship between perceived issue importance and online activism across different platforms and different issues.
\nResearch question/Hypotheses
\nH2: People who use Twitter most frequently will show higher level of activism than those who most frequently use other platforms.
\nH3: The mostly used social media has a moderating effect on the relationship between perceived issue importance and online activism.
\nAn online Qualtrics survey was conducted containing 30 multiple choice questions. 119 respondents living in the US over 18 were recruited through Amazon MTurk, and 19 incomplete responses were excluded. The demographic information of respondents are as follows: gender (Identify as male = 55%), age (M = 34.16, SD = 9.43), sexuality (Identify as heterosexual = 66%, identify as bisexual or pansexual = 24%), ethnicity (White = 69%, Black/African American = 11%), highest education level (Bachelor’s degree = 55%, Graduate degree = 26%). A MANCOVA multivariate test was first performed to represent the within-subject effect of issue category. In next step, five ANCOVA jjmtests were applied to each issue to study the relationship between IVs and DV, as well as the interaction effects of social media platform and perceived importance.
\nH1 is partly supported on climate and gender issues, while they show no significant relationship when five issues are combined. On Twitter and TikTok, in some cases, even a negative relationship is demonstrated.
\nRQ1 could be answered by the significant relationship between the different mostly used social media and online activism. The platform choice also showed main effect on race, economy, and LGBT issues.
\nH2 specifically focuses on the activist potential of Twitter. Contrary to expectation, Twitter constantly shows the lowest level of activism, and hence H2 is rejected on all five social issues.
\nThe moderating effect of cross-platform difference hypothesized by H3 is supported on issue of climate change, racial justice, and LGBT+ rights, and the interactive effect is also significant when calculating five issues as a whole.
\nClimate change issue
\nOnly perceived importance had a significant main effect to predict online activism of climate change, F (1, 92) = 5.28, p < .05. The two-way interaction between perceived importance and SM was significant, F (3, 92) = 3.91, p < .05.
\nRacial justice issue
\nOnly social media platforms had a main effect F (3, 92) = 4.90, p < .01. Twitter still exhibited the lowest level of activism (M = 3.05, SD = 0.22), and Facebook witnessed the highest level of activism (M = 3.95, SD = 0.15). The interaction between perceived importance and platform was also significant, F (3, 92) = 2.80, p < .05.
\nEconomic justice issue
\nOnly platform factor showed a main effect, F (3, 92) = 5.45, p < .01, with Twitter having the lowest level (M=3.02, SE = 0.23), and highest participation belonged to Facebook (M = 4.02, SE = 0.16). The interaction between perceived importance and SM was not significant, F (3, 92) = 1.86, p = .14.
\nLGBT+ rights issue
\nOnly platform choice had main effect, F (3, 92) = 2.42, p = .07, and Twitter users still displayed the lowest level of activism (M = 2.56, SE = 0.23). The interaction between perceived importance and SM was also significant, F (3, 92) = 2.77, p < .05.
\nGender equality issue
\nOnly perceived importance of gender issues showed a main effect, F (1, 92) = 15.27, p < .001. On all four platforms, users demonstrated a positive relationship between how important they treat gender equality and how active they are on this topic, though the interactive effect was not significant, F (3, 92) = 2.59, p = .06.
\nCasting light on nuances from the dimension of platforms and issue categories, one major implication of this research is to infer the different ecosystems on social media. The low level of activism engagement on Twitter might indicate it doesn’t provide the most friendly environment for socio-political discussion and participation. In contrast, with increasing tactic repertoire available on other platforms, we may conceive more creative forms of online activism other than text-based one springing up. Yet on issues of marginalized groups under the matrix of race, class, and gender expression, TikTok might cultivate a harsh atmosphere for activists. Facebook and Instagram generally exhibit a positive environment by having all positive relationships between perceived issue importance and activism, probably due to the privacy control and expressive motivation respectively. On the other hand, practically, different issues may also take different routes of activism to maximize the effect.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "98081", "postDate": "2023-08-21T01:58:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 150871, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "1bc03ab0-ecaf-4d4a-bb61-d863447f83dd", "siteSettingsId": 160339, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 51808, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "“Hi!” VS. “Hello”: The Impact of Persona on Users' Acceptance of a Psychoeducational Chatbot", "slug": "hi-vs-hello-the-impact-of-persona-on-users-acceptance-of-a-psychoeducational-chatbot", "uri": "medialab/research-article/hi-vs-hello-the-impact-of-persona-on-users-acceptance-of-a-psychoeducational-chatbot", "dateCreated": "2023-08-21T01:58:39-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2023-08-21T02:05:26-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 150871, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/hi-vs-hello-the-impact-of-persona-on-users-acceptance-of-a-psychoeducational-chatbot", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/hi-vs-hello-the-impact-of-persona-on-users-acceptance-of-a-psychoeducational-chatbot", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "150887": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Hee Jeong Han", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "150888": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sanjana Mendu", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "This paper was based on a project as part of the “COMM 506: Research Methods in Communications” course.
\nINTRODUCTION
\nPost-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a serious public health issue, with approximately 8 million adults in the United States suffer from PTSD in any given year. Current approaches to support persons living with PTSD are often unable to sustain adherence, leading to sub-optimal clinical outcomes. Chatbots can help to improve longitudinal adherence by interactively engaging users and maintaining social presence. This study aims to investigate how perceived chatbot persona affects cognitive absorption of psychoeducation material and how cognitive absorption affects individual's acceptance of health information from a chatbot.
\nRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\nRQ1: For adults, controlling for gender, race, age, and education level, what is the relationship between perceived differences of chatbot personas and cognitive absorption of psychoeducation material?
\nRQ2: For adults, controlling for gender, race, age, and education level, what is the relationship between cognitive absorption of psychoeducation material and individuals' acceptance and perceived usefulness of health information from a chatbot?
\nH1: Professional persona will be positively associated with attractiveness toward the persona.
\nH2: High attractiveness toward the persona will be positively associated with cognitive absorption during exploring the chatbot.
\nH3a: High cognitive absorption through the chatbot will be positively associated with acceptance of information offered by the persona.
\nH3b: High cognitive absorption through the chatbot will be positively associated with perceived usefulness of information offered by the persona.
\nMETHOD
![\"\"](\"{asset:150889:url||/assets/uploads/mendusanjana_7022114_130297776_Figure01.jpg}\")
The researchers conducted a 2 (persona: professional vs. friendly) condition between-subjects experiment to assess how perception of persona affects user’s information acceptances. Participants (N=118) were randomly assigned to one of two stimuli in which they were asked to interact with a chatbot whose persona was presented and constructed as either “professional” or a “friendly”. Following the interaction, participants’ attitudes toward the chatbot were measured, including perceived attractiveness, cognitive absorption, and acceptance and perceived usefulness of information provided by the chatbot.
\nRESULTS
\nH1 was not supported by the ANOVA or mediation analyses. This suggests that our personas were not perceived as we had hoped and instead presented significant overlap. Our manipulation of chatbot persona did not have a significant effect of the mediating variables. Although an ANOVA test showed that acceptance of information was slightly higher in the ``professional'' persona condition [F(1, 116) = 3.96, p = 0.048], a subsequent mediation analysis did not support this supposed direct effect.
\nH2 was supported by both the ANOVA and mediation analyses conducted. This suggests that participants' perception of the chatbot's attractiveness influence their cognitive absorption while interacting with the chatbot. H3a and H3b were also supported, highlighting the importance of cognitive absorption in supporting participants' acceptance and perceived usefulness of the information provided by the chatbot. Interestingly, perceived attractiveness also had a direct effect on acceptance and perceived usefulness of information. This challenges the assumption of serial mediation made by adopting PROCESS model 6 for the mediation analysis.
![\"\"](\"{asset:150890:url||/assets/uploads/mendusanjana_7022114_130297777_Figure02.jpg}\")
![\"\"](\"{asset:150891:url||/assets/uploads/mendusanjana_7022114_130297779_Figure03.jpg}\")
CONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\nMultiple regressions and mediation analyses were conducted on online survey responses, controlling for gender, age, education level, and race. Results revealed that perceived differences, rather than actual differences, in chatbot persona significantly influence user outcomes following a psychoeducational interaction.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "98081", "postDate": "2023-08-21T01:56:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 150847, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "25113d32-a154-46cb-9c8f-eec3b166f083", "siteSettingsId": 160315, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 51806, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Have we got News for you: Exemplification in Social Media News Posts", "slug": "have-we-got-news-for-you-exemplification-in-social-media-news-posts", "uri": "medialab/research-article/have-we-got-news-for-you-exemplification-in-social-media-news-posts", "dateCreated": "2023-08-21T01:56:34-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2023-08-21T02:10:07-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 150847, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/have-we-got-news-for-you-exemplification-in-social-media-news-posts", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/have-we-got-news-for-you-exemplification-in-social-media-news-posts", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "150864": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Timilehin Durotoye", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "150865": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Yongnam Jung", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "150866": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Lana Medina", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "INTRODUCTION
\nGiven the increase of news accessed via social media and the indication that social media users may be sharing information based solely on the post information and image, there is need to examine how audiences react to exemplars utilized in that medium. Past research has indicated how this hybrid media system has contributed to amplifying attention to political campaigns/issues (Zhang et al., 2018), health information (Ben Messaoud, 2021), fake news or misinformation (Carlson, 2020), and how that information in turn shapes public opinion (Gabore & Xiujun, 2018). To investigate this topic, this study conducted a 2 (news information/headline and news image) X 2 (exemplar vs abstract) within-subjects design experiment to further understand how exemplification in social media news increases pro-social behavior. The benefit of this type of research is greater understanding to how audiences respond to exemplification in news, but also health information, public policy, and political messages.
\nRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
![\"\"](\"{asset:150902:url||/assets/uploads/medinalana_7094974_130254372_Figure_01.jpg}\")
RQ. For adults, controlling for content and news outlets, what is the relationship between the exemplification of 1) news headlines and 2) images on Facebook, and 1) credibility 2) sympathy and 3) prosocial behavior?
\nIV to DV
\nH1. Individuals exposed to exemplar news images on Facebook will be more likely to be persuaded to exhibit prosocial behaviors than those exposed to abstract news images.
\nH2. Individuals exposed to an exemplar news headlines/post information on Facebook will be more likely to be persuaded to exhibit prosocial behaviors than those exposed to abstract news headlines/post information.
\nH3. Individuals exposed to exemplar news images combined with exemplar news headlines/post information on Facebook will be persuaded to exhibit the greatest prosocial behaviors.
\nIV to Mediator
\nH4. Individuals exposed to an exemplar news image on Facebook will be more likely to experience sympathy compared to those exposed to an abstract news image.
\nH5. Individuals exposed to an exemplar news headline on Facebook will be more likely to believe the news post is credible compared to those exposed to an abstract news image
\nMediator to DV
\nH6. Individuals who think that exposed news is credible will be more likely to be persuaded to exhibit prosocial behaviors than those who don't.
\nH7. Individuals who feel sympathy about the news will be more likely to be persuaded to exhibit prosocial behaviors than those who don’t.
\nH8. Exemplar image’s effect on sympathy is stronger in low involvement status than high involvement status.
\nH9. Exemplar image’s effect on perceived credibility is stronger in low involvement status than high involvement status.
\nMETHOD
![\"\"](\"{asset:150903:url||/assets/uploads/medinalana_7094974_130254373_Figure_02.jpg}\")
A within-subjects manipulated experiment using undergraduate student volunteers (N=127) was conducted to test the effect of exemplification of social media news posts on individual’s likelihood to commit prosocial behavior. Participants read four social media news posts with the following: 1) exemplar image with exemplar post information and headline; 2) exemplar image with abstract post information and headline; 3) abstract image with exemplar post information and headline; 4) abstract image with abstract post information and headline. They were then asked to rate them on six measures for prosocial behavior, two measures for issue involvement, and measures for sympathy and perceived credibility.
\nRESULTS
![\"\"](\"{asset:150904:url||/assets/uploads/medinalana_7094974_130254376_Figure_06.jpg}\")
![\"\"](\"{asset:150905:url||/assets/uploads/medinalana_7094974_130254374_Figure_03.jpg}\")
![\"\"](\"{asset:150906:url||/assets/uploads/medinalana_7094974_130254377_Figure_04.png}\")
![\"\"](\"{asset:150907:url||/assets/uploads/medinalana_7094974_130254375_Figure_05.jpg}\")
CONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\nAlthough the first few hypotheses were disconfirmed, the results were significant, which indicates how abstract images are better at garnering more sympathy, leading to increased prosocial behavior. Unlike an exemplar image, which provides audiences with an example representing a larger population, the abstract image actually illustrates the wider population that needs help; that visual stimulus (seeing proof of the need for donations or other contribution) could be more directly provoking sympathy and prosocial behavior. However, because the study was conducted as a within-subject design without randomization, it’s possible this is a confounding variable on the results. The theoretical implication of this study is greater understanding into how exemplification theory operates with prosocial behavior as the dependent variable. Previous exemplification studies have primarily focused on measuring attitude and issue perception; these results provide insight into how exemplification of images could have less of an impact on prosocial behavior compared to abstract images.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "98081", "postDate": "2023-08-05T01:01:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 149107, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "edbbb281-fd5b-4b6c-bed1-1b216e2b51a4", "siteSettingsId": 158555, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 51446, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Virtually Explore the World: How Modality of Viewing Photos in Google Maps Affects Destination Images and Travel Intentions", "slug": "virtually-explore-the-world-how-modality-of-viewing-photos-in-google-maps-affects-destination-images-and-travel-intentions", "uri": "medialab/research-article/virtually-explore-the-world-how-modality-of-viewing-photos-in-google-maps-affects-destination-images-and-travel-intentions", "dateCreated": "2023-08-05T01:01:10-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2023-08-21T02:10:59-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 149107, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/virtually-explore-the-world-how-modality-of-viewing-photos-in-google-maps-affects-destination-images-and-travel-intentions", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/virtually-explore-the-world-how-modality-of-viewing-photos-in-google-maps-affects-destination-images-and-travel-intentions", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "149127": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Yaqi Gong", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "149128": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jiyoon Kim", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "149129": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Youzhen Su", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "INTRODUCTION
Travel information search online can greatly influence prospective tourists’ perceptions and behavioral intentions towards the destinations. Web-based geographic information systems (WebGIS) have become one of the most prevalent information sources when prospective tourists search for information online. Google Maps, as the leading product among all WebGIS, provides visual information about a place in various formats such as static photos and 360º view photos. However, no research has examined the potential effects and mechanisms of modalities of photo viewing on Google Maps on users’ psychological and behavioral outcomes.
\nRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\nControlling Google Maps use, what are the relationships between viewing modality, presence-related cognitive heuristics (sense of being-there and perceived interaction), destination image, and willingness to travel?
\nMETHOD
\nWe conducted a 2 (modality: static photos versus 360° view photos) × 2 (type of tourist attractions: natural versus cultural/historical) between-subject factorial experiment. There were 264 participants recruited from MTurk, Facebook, and Reddit. They were randomly assigned to one of the experimental conditions and then completed a questionnaire measuring the sense of being-there, perceived interaction, destination image, and willingness to travel.
\nRESULTS
\nFirst, modality in Google Maps indirectly influenced individuals’ destination image and willingness to travel to the tourist attractions they viewed through sense of being-there. That is, viewing 360° view photos elicited a higher sense of being-there, which led to a greater affective and cognitive image toward the places they viewed and heightened their willingness to travel than viewing static photos of the same tourist attractions.
\nSecond, modality marginally influenced viewers’ perceived interaction, however, individuals’ perceived interaction did not mediate the relationship between modality and destination image and traveling intention.
\nLastly, the results illustrated that the types of tourist attractions made no difference in one’s sense of being-there, perceived interaction, destination image, and willingness to travel to those destinations.
\nCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\nConsistent with previous studies, we found the main effects of modality that lead to psychological outcomes for users by triggering cognitive heuristics. The mediation effects revealed an important role of heuristic cues in shaping individuals’ attitudinal and behavioral responses to different modalities of photo viewing in Google Maps.
\nThe findings regarding the stronger effects of the richer modality in Google Maps support the MAIN model and add empirical evidence. Furthermore, in virtual traveling, the sense of being there is important. Our data also suggests a range of practical implications for Destination Marketing Organization (DMO) and the real estate industry and the theoretical implications for the psychology of communication technology.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "98081", "postDate": "2023-08-05T00:50:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 149078, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "29bffec6-36e2-44a7-9b96-d68ad8315e14", "siteSettingsId": 158526, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 51444, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Exploring the Effect of Realism and Transformation of Augmented Reality (AR) Face Filters on Social Media", "slug": "exploring-the-effect-of-realism-and-transformation-of-augmented-reality-ar-face-filters-on-social-media", "uri": "medialab/research-article/exploring-the-effect-of-realism-and-transformation-of-augmented-reality-ar-face-filters-on-social-media", "dateCreated": "2023-08-05T00:50:55-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2023-08-21T02:10:48-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 149078, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/exploring-the-effect-of-realism-and-transformation-of-augmented-reality-ar-face-filters-on-social-media", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/exploring-the-effect-of-realism-and-transformation-of-augmented-reality-ar-face-filters-on-social-media", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "149100": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Maranda Berndt", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "149101": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Qing Xu", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "149102": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Hannah Smith", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "(This paper was based on a project as part of the “Psychological Aspects of Communication Technology” course.)
INTRODUCTION
\nAugmented Reality (AR) face filters have gotten more popular on social media in the past decade, with about 600 million people using AR filters each month of Instagram and Facebook (Bhatt, 2020). Relying on augmented reality, a variety of face filters offer users 3D experience via incorporating digital elements in the real-time physical world (Keeports, 2022). Previous research has looked into motivation for an individual using AR face filters on Instagram in the realm of the version of themselves they wish to present (Javornik et al., 2022). However, there has been little to no research done on which social media platforms people choose for specific AR face filters and the motivation behind using AR filters.
\nAR filters can dramatically change an individual’s facial features (Appeal et al., 2020). Along with that, a wide variety of filters available mean there is a number of different changes that can be made to a person’s features (e.g., different eyebrow shapes, facial contour, dog ears, large eyes, etc.). Self-presentation theory discusses how individuals’ attempt to control and shape others’ impressions through manipulating their attributes, including setting, appearance, and behavior (Goffman, 1959). AR face filters is a way to control how individuals are viewed online. Therefore, the goal of this paper is to look at the relationship between the levels of realism and transformation in AR face filters and how the motivation behind using face filters could moderate and individual’s enjoyment of using the filter, their attitudes towards filters, and which social media platform they would choose to use filters on.
\nRESEARCH QUESTION/HYPOTHESES
\nH1: AR filters high in realism will increase (a) users’ likelihood of using Instagram filters, (b) increase negative attitudes towards AR filters, and (c) increase attitudes towards the use of the specific AR filter provided.
\nH2: Low transformation conditions will increase the likelihood of using filters on Facebook.
\nRQ1: Does transformation influence specific AR face filter attitudes?
\nH3: AR filters with high realism and low transformation will increase (a) the likelihood of using Twitter, (b) the positive attitudes towards AR filters, and (c) increase specific attitudes towards the AR filter provided.
\nH4: The interaction between low realism and high transformation will (a) increase the likelihood of using Snapchat, (b) decrease the likelihood of using Twitter, (c) increase positive attitudes towards using AR filters, and (d) decrease negative attitudes towards using AR filters.
\nH5: The interaction between low realism and low transformation will decrease the attitude of anxiety/depression towards using AR filters.
\nH6: The relationships in H1 will be moderated by (a) popularity and (b) appearance motivations.
\nH7: AR filters with high realism and high transformation will increase (a) the likelihood of using Instagram and TikTok, (b) increase the negative and dependent attitudes towards using AR face filters and (c) increase the attitudes AR filter attitudes when moderated by popularity and appearance motivations.
\nH8: AR filters with high realism and low transformation will increase (a) the positive attitudes towards AR filters, and (b) attitudes towards the specific AR filter provided when moderated by appearance motivation.
\nH9: The interaction between low realism and high transformation will (a) increase likelihood of using Snapchat, (b) decrease the likelihood of using Twitter, (c) increase positive attitudes and (d) decrease negative attitudes towards AR filters when moderated by connection motivation.
\nH10: The interaction between low realism and high transformation will decrease the use of Instagram and TikTok when moderated by appearance motivation.
\nH11: The interaction between low realism and low transformation will be moderated by connection motivation.
\nH12: The direct effects of transformation and realism on (a) platform preference, (b) overall social media preference, (c) attitudes towards AR face filters, and (d) attitudes towards use of the specific AR face filter provided will be mediated by enjoyment.
\nMETHOD
\nAfter receiving IRB review approval, participants were recruited through social media platforms: Reddit, Facebook, and Twitter, and MTurk and completed a brief online survey distributed via Qualtrics after being randomly assigned to a condition. This study utilized a 2 (transformation: high vs. low) X 2 (realism: high vs. low) experimental factorial design. Participants were exposed to two different pictures simultaneously. One of these was an image of an individual (23-year-old woman) without a filter. This image was shown to all participants who took the survey. The other image was the same individual, pose and facial expression but with an AR face filter applied. The image was shown as dependent on the condition that the individual was allocated to: high realism/high transformation, high realism/low transformation, low realism/ high transformation, low realism/low transformation. The online survey included basic demographic questions, and measured participant’s enjoyment of the AR filter, their attitudes towards AR filters in general and the specific AR filter they were shown, and the social media platform they would use that particular AR filter on. The final sample (N = 239) was made up of 53.14% female participants, the average age was 34.13 and 83.26% of the participants were white.
\nRESULTS
\nWe found support for partial support for hypotheses 3C, 5, and 6C, and support for 7B. We found opposing support for 4B. Hypothesis three was measured with a factorial ANOVA; the main effects for transformation were not statistically significant. However, we can see a trend in the interaction plot suggesting that for lower levels of realism and higher levels of transformation there are increased opinions of the specific AR filter used, which provides partial support for our hypothesis. Partial support was found for H5, which we explored using a Factorial ANOVA. While the main effects for transformation, realism and the interaction term were insignificant, the plot suggests that for lower levels of realism and low levels of transformation there are decreased anxiety scores. We used Hayes Process Macro for hypotheses post 6 and found partial support for H6C, which stated that AR filters high in realism will increase attitudes towards the use of the specific AR filter type provided when moderated by appearance. While the interaction term was not statistically significant when we look at the interaction plot we can see that the slopes appear to be different with the low appearance line being steepest and those with high appearance having the steepest line. Hypothesis seven was also studied using Hayes Process Macro, specifically using two-step moderation models. The dual-interaction term in both appearance and popularity models was statistically significant. This therefore supports our hypothesis as high realism and high transformation increases anxious attitudes towards using AR filters and this is moderated by (a) popularity motivations and (b) appearance motivations as both heighten the difference between low and high realism.
\nWe explored hypothesis four using a Factorial ANOVA; the main effect for transformation and realism were not significant for H4b, along with the interaction. However, upon further examination we do see an interesting trend in the interaction plot; namely, the plot appears to suggest that for lower levels of realism and high levels of transformation, there are increased intentions to use Twitter. This is the opposite of our hypothesis.
\nCONCLUSION/DISCUSSION
\nTheoretical contributions: Potential interesting contributions to the mental health and wellbeing literature as we found empirical evidence for certain types of filters affecting anxiety and negative attitudes towards AR filters more than others, and we demonstrate how motivations behind using filters can influence anxiety too. Additionally, we contribute to social media communications literature by providing initial empirical support for different motivations influencing opinions of filters dependent on how realistic they are.
\nPractical Contributions: We found some practical implications for Twitter and the stories platform; the site may want to embrace low realism and high transformation filters. The mental health and well-being related findings may be useful in policy making. Our findings may also have interesting implications for marketing practitioners when using techniques such as influencer or social media marketing - brands must consider how they wish to make their customers feel when encouraging them to try their filters.
\nLimitations: Our participant recruitment sources had a significant effect on our findings; we discuss two possible explanations for this: MTurkers make up a different demographic or the data from MTurk was of a low quality. Our model may have also been overly complicated; in trying to reduce error and account for numerous possible moderators and mediators we produced a model with a lot of moving parts. Additionally, this study focused on static face filters, while real-time video filters are a recent advance; TikTok is an excellent example worth examining. This study did not separate gender to see the differences between each gender. It would be interesting for future studies to separate gender to see if there are differences in each gender.
\nReferences
\nBhatt, S. (2020). The big picture in the entire AR-filter craze. Retrieved from https://e
\nconomictimes.indiatimes.com/internet/brands-see-the-big-picture-in-ar-filter-craze
\n/articleshow/78266655.cms?from=mdr.
\nKeeports, A. (2022, April 7). What’s Behind Augmented Reality Face Filters? Quantilus. https://quantilus.com/whats-behind-augmented-reality-face-filters/
\nJavornik, A., Marder, B., Barhorst, J. B., McLean, G., Rogers, Y., Marshall, P. & Warlop, L. (2022). “What lies behind the filter?” Uncovering the motivations for using augmented reality (AR) face filters on social media and their effect on well-being. Computers in Human Behavior, 128, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb....
\nGoffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Anchor Books.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "98081", "postDate": "2023-08-04T21:00:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 149045, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "27cd5da1-b22d-42b6-bd38-55c11b0a8aa7", "siteSettingsId": 158493, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 51442, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "First Impression Is Everything: Interactivity and Privacy in the App Sign-up Journey", "slug": "first-impression-is-everything-interactivity-and-privacy-in-the-app-sign-up-journey", "uri": "medialab/research-article/first-impression-is-everything-interactivity-and-privacy-in-the-app-sign-up-journey", "dateCreated": "2023-08-04T21:00:36-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2023-08-21T02:11:11-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 149045, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/first-impression-is-everything-interactivity-and-privacy-in-the-app-sign-up-journey", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/first-impression-is-everything-interactivity-and-privacy-in-the-app-sign-up-journey", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "149071": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Yongnam Jung", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "149072": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jiaqi (Agnes) Bao", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "149073": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Megan Norman", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "
(This paper was based on a project as part of the C517: Psychological Aspects of Communication Technology course.)
INTRODUCTION
\nMobile apps have become a ubiquitous part of many media users’ lives with about 85% of Americans owning a smartphone (Pew Research Center, 2021). However, many app users may face privacy concerns when deciding which apps to download (Anderson, 2015). This study investigates the role of message interactivity in a common user experience: setting up a new mobile fitness app to receive customized personal services, while weighing the privacy risks of personal information disclosure.
\nRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\nGiven the tradeoff between privacy concerns and receiving personalized services in mobile apps, our research asks (RQ1): For new fitness app users, controlling for power usage, what is the relationship between message interactivity on users’ attitude toward the app and intention to use the app mediated through privacy concern and perceived benefit? We hypothesize that greater levels of message interactivity will lead to (H1) greater levels of elaboration, (H2a) greater levels of elaboration created by message interactivity will lead to greater levels of privacy concerns, and (H2b) greater levels of perceived benefits, and (H3) greater levels of cognitive absorption, leading to greater levels of perceived benefit. Furthermore, we hypothesize that (H4) privacy literacy will moderate the relationship of message interactivity on intention to use the app via elaboration and perceived risk, and (H5) issue involvement will moderate the relationship of message interactivity on (a) attitude toward the app and (b) intention to use the app via elaboration and perceived benefits (Figure 1).
\nMETHOD
\nIn a scenario-based, between-subjects online experiment, we manipulated three levels of message interactivity through an interactive dialog with a chatbot to simulate setting up a new mobile fitness app (Figure 2). Participants were recruited from MTurk and routed to the Qualtrics survey, where they engaged with the chatbot. We then measured their elaboration and cognitive absorption as initial mediators to see how each affects perceived benefit and privacy concerns in a two-step mediation to ultimately impact users’ attitudes toward the app and intentions to use the app. Privacy literacy and issue involvement were measured as moderators. Power usage was measured as a covariate and statistical analyses used MANCOVA and ANCOVAS through SPSS v. 28. PROCESS Macro was used for mediation analyses (Hayes, 2017).
\nRESULTS
\nParticipants were randomly assigned to one of the three interactivity conditions (low, N=57; medium, N=59; or high, N=60; total N=176). Participants on average reported a high issue involvement (M=6.19, SD=1.09), high privacy literacy (M=5.29, SD=1.00), and high-power usage (M=5.29, SD=1.00) on the 7-pt scales. The multivariate main effect for message interactivity showed no significant findings on the outcome variables specified in RQ1, Wilks’ λ = .91, F (12, 334) = 1.30, p =.22, partial η2 = .04. Mediation analysis did not support H2a, H2b, or H3, and we found no significant findings on the moderating effects of privacy literacy on elaboration (H4). However, we found a significant moderating effect for issue involvement (H5), such that medium levels of message interactivity had a positive effect on attitude and intentions to use the app via message elaboration and perceived benefits for users with medium and high issue involvement (i.e., interest in health).
\nCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\nThrough a scenario-based design, we found that medium and high issue involvement significantly moderate users’ perceived benefits of an app. These perceived benefits can affect users’ attitudes toward and intentions to use an app. We believe that high message interactivity may have backfired through the overly repetitious nature of the high interactivity condition stimuli, supported through some qualitative feedback. Thus, issue involvement and optimal levels of message interactivity should be considered carefully by app designers, as they seek to develop apps that may help engage low-involvement users (i.e., users who are not yet very interested in health), and also honor and acknowledge the privacy concerns of users.
\nREFERENCES:
\nAnderson, M. (2015, November 10). Mobile apps, privacy and permissions: 5 key takeaways. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/11/10/key-takeaways-mobile-apps/
\nHayes, A. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford publications.
\nPew Research Center. (2021, April 7). Mobile Fact Sheet. Research Topics. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/fact-sheet/mobile/
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2021-06-05T18:39:02-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 34039, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "dbf72702-9f17-4ae5-8043-7aad32adb423", "siteSettingsId": 34039, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21321, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Susceptibility to Fake News: How Educated Are You?", "slug": "susceptibility-to-fake-news-how-educated-are-you", "uri": "medialab/research-article/susceptibility-to-fake-news-how-educated-are-you", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:31:57-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:14:28-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 34039, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/susceptibility-to-fake-news-how-educated-are-you", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/susceptibility-to-fake-news-how-educated-are-you", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41903": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Justin Endlich", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41904": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Julie Siegal", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41905": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Rachel Halpern", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the \"COMM 418: Media Effects: Theory and Research\" course.
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tFor our project we chose to analyze the correlation between one’s highest level of education received and their susceptibility to fake news online. As we learned throughout the semester, fake news has been very prominent in social media in the past 8 years as social media platforms allow for all users to express their freedom of speech. We wanted to test how one’s level of education plays a role in whether or not they are less or more susceptible to fake news depending on their education level.
\n\t
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tRQ: For those who are exposed to news online, what is the relationship between one’s level of education and their susceptibility to fake news?
\n\tH1: Those with higher levels of education will be less susceptible to fake news than those with lower levels of education.
\n\tH2: Those who use Twitter more frequently will be less susceptible to fake news.
\n\tMETHOD
\n\tFor our project, we chose to create a survey to ask participants questions related to susceptibility to fake news, education level, and frequency of social media use. We recruited participants through convenience sampling and published our survey through Qualtrics. We received 151 responses to our survey in just under 3 weeks with 57% being female and 42% male. All of our questions were measured on a 7-point likert scale to ensure precise and specific answers to analyze in our data analysis.
\n\t
\n\tRESULTS
\n\tFor hypothesis 1 (H1) which tested the relationship between one’s education level and susceptibility to fake news on social, we found that there was a strong positive correlation present. In Figure 01, the P-value for that one-way ANOVA was .0004 which statistically proves a correlation between the two variables. For hypothesis 2 (H2) which tested the correlation between frequency of twitter use and susceptibility to fake news, we also found a correlation between the two variables. In Figure 03, we see the P-value is .0002 which proves a positive correlation between twitter use and susceptibility. Along with that, we also made a discovery that for High School graduates, as they use twitter more frequently, they have the largest decline in their susceptibility to fake news as shown in Figure 04.
\n\t![\"1\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/1_5.png\")
\n\t![\"2\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/2_4.png\")
\n\t![\"3\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/3_4.png\")
\n\t![\"4\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/4_3.png\")
\n\t
\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tAfter doing our data analysis, our “story” was completely finished. We sought out to find answers about the correlation between one’s level of education and their susceptibility to fake news online, and that is exactly what we did. All semester we learned about the harms and effects that fake news has on our society, and it’s time to make a change. We believe that our study will provide crucial statistical evidence to show that education plays a huge role in helping people detect fake news more easily on social media. For future research, we could add more participate to this study with an increased age range to help fill any gaps we may have missed during our project. I believe that maybe changing our dependent variable from level of education to income level may also give us some crucial information of how fake news can be stopped.
\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the \"COMM 418: Media Effects: Theory and Research\" course.
\n\n\t
\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tThis study set out to examine the relationship between automated journalism and individual’s perceived trustworthiness and expertise vs. human journalism. Also, examining the message credibility of automated journalism vs. human journalism. Theoretical concepts, the MAIN model and the Human AI Interaction-TIME model were applied in this study. Through an experiment online survey(N = 106), this study provides evidence that links individuals’ differences and perceptions of automated journalism vs. human journalism.
\n\t
\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tH1a: People who have high levels of belief in MH will perceive automated journalists to be more trustworthy and have higher expertise than human journalists.
\n\tH1b :People who have high levels of belief in MH will perceive news written by automated journalists to be more credible.
\n\tH2a: People who have low levels of belief in MH will perceive human journalists to be more trustworthy and have higher expertise than automated journalists.
\n\tH2b :People who have low levels of belief in MH will perceive news written by human journalists to be more credible.
\n\tRQ: For users with different levels of machine heuristic , who are exposed to the news content about the covid-19 vaccine, what is the relationship between exposed to automated journalism vs. human journalism and the perceived trustworthiness and the perceived expertise of the information of the news story?
\n\t![\"1\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/zhaoshihan_6859805_123841793_figure5.png\")
\n\t
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\tThis study used an experimental design administered through an online survey (N=106). Each respondent was randomly assigned to one of the following two conditions, with no statistically significant differences between the groups for age, gender, education, media consumption of news, or political preference :
\n\t1. Automated texts with assigned computer sources as Machine Journalism (N=53);
\n\t2. Human texts with assigned human sources as Human Journalism (N=47);
\n\tFor participant recruitment, first, convenience sampling and snowball sampling were conducted over the social media platforms Facebook, Instagram and Wechat. We also used an online recruitment machine, Amazon Mechanical Turk, which is a forum where requesters can post their work as artificial intelligence tasks (HIT). Each participant will be randomly distributed under two different stimuli, they are Human journalism Vs. Machine journalism. Most surveys are on a 7-point scale. In our research, we believe that Cognitive Heuristic will affect the influence of our independent variable on the dependent variable. All the production of our survey is done through Qualtrics PSU. After collecting those answers from all participants, we exported the data from Qualtrics to JMP (statistical software). For the data analysis, multiple factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) is conducted. Our experiment also used a crosstab to detect Chi-Square tests.
\n\t
\n\tRESULTS
\n\tHypothesis H1a, H2a were supported and showed that when people have high levels of machine heuristic, they will perceive automated journalist to be more trustworthy and have higher expertise than human journalist, and in the same way, people who have low levels of machine heuristic will perceive human journalist to be more trustworthy and have higher expertise than automated journalist. Next, hypothesis H1b and H2b were not supported, and the results showed the relationship between message credibility and machine heuristic was not significant.
\n\t![\"1\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/zhaoshihan_6859805_123841786_figure1-1.png\")
\n\t![\"2\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/zhaoshihan_6859805_123841788_figure2.png\")
\n\t![\"3\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/zhaoshihan_6859805_123841789_figure3.png\")
\n\t![\"4\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/zhaoshihan_6859805_123841791_figure4.png\")
\n\t
\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tOur findings are consistent with the HAII-TIME Model. And we found that automatic journalism is more suitable for people who have a high level of belief in heuristic, they may be more willing to accept contents from automatic journalists. We have a small number of participants, and in the research, we do not have control variables. Also, the news is focused on covid vaccine area and is from an authoritative website which means that the news already has credibility. For the further study,we want to distribute our surveys in different ethnicities; using news from different fields, instead of vaccines; and adding some control variables, for example, Age and Education level.
\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the \"COMM 418: Media Effects: Theory and Research\" course.
\n\n\t
\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tGender stereotype is an issue that remained and is still not solved until today, more and more females start working and asking for gender equality in the workplace. A piece of common news and stories people can find online, a female work harder and better than a male does, however, they still do not have a position that as high as male does. Therefore, this research is finding if an individual’s perception will get impacted by the characters in the game.![\"1\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Picture2_2.png\")
\n\t![\"2\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Picture3.png\")
\n\t
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tRQ: For video gamer, controlling for gender preference in video games playing what is the relationship between picture types in video games and perspective towards different gender?
\n\tH1: Individuals who are primed with a gender stereotypical game portrayal (male hero saved female) are more likely to agree with gender stereotypes in games than individuals who are primed with non-stereotypical game portrayal (female hero saved male)
\n\n\tH2: The priming effect hypothesized in H1 will be more pronounced among heavy gamers compared to light gamers
\n\n\tH3: Heavy gaming will be associated with more stereotypical gender-role perceptions in games
\n\n\t
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\tThere were a total of 44 participants in the study, however only 40 data were qualified to use in the analysis due to technical problems. Of the participants, 50% were female and 50% were male are separate evenly into two different video game experiment conditions (male hero condition as Super Mario and female hero condition as Princess Peach). The age range of the participants were between 19-27 years old. The mean of ages is about 22.925 and the median is 23. Participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire. The questionnaire included eight dependent variables (helpless, hero prediction, innocent, aggressive, attractiveness, video game influences, female/male hero, sexualize).
\n\t
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\tH1 predicted that individuals who are primed with a gender stereotypical games portrayal (male hero saved female) are more likely to agree with gender stereotypes in games than individuals who are primed with non-stereotypical game portrayal (female hero saved male). H2 predicted that the priming effect hypothesized in H1 will be more pronounced among heavy gamers compare to light gamers.the simple linear regression showed the video game consuming was statistically significant predictor of female perspectives towards hero predictions in two priming conditions.(R^2=0.166, SE=0.137, p>0.0369). Thus H1 and H2 was supported.
\n\tThe third hypothesis (H3) predicted that Heavy gaming will be associated with more stereotypical gender-role perceptions in games. The results of a regression (figure 2) show a significant relationship that the more time video game consuming, the more stereotypical gender-role perceptions they perceived.(R^2=0.392, SE=0.186, p>0.005). Thus, (H3) was supported.
\n\tWe also found the interesting findings that the heavy gamers are having non-stereotypical perspectives towards male attractive in two different conditions(R^2=0.310, SE=0.118, p>0.0445).
\n\tThe results gives us a great answer to our research question, which asked about the relationship between two IVs (video game consuming and video game condition viewing) and DV (perspectives towards different gender). The supports of our related hypotheses indicates that there is positive relationship between video games consuming and stereotypical perspectives towards different gender.
\n\n\t![\"3\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Picture1_4.png\")
\n\t
\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tOur findings show that people who consume more time on video games as heavy gamers who are primed in male hero condition are more likely to disagree with female as hero prediction and heavy gamers who are primed in female hero condition are more likely to agree with female as hero prediction in responses. This may be because of the priming theory that stimulate participants cognitive perspective towards female hero predictions and creates the differences between two portrayal of the main character. Heavy gamers are having more stereotypical gender-role perceptions in games in both conditions. This may be because the heavy gamers are having more experiences with video games and having greater knowledge towards female avatars in video games compared to light gamers who have less experiences in video games.
\n\tThe findings indicates that heavy gamers are associated with more stereotypical gender-role perceptions in games and stereotypical games portrayal also have impact on individuals’ perception towards different gender. For instance, individual who exposed to male hero conditions are more likely to believe female avatar is helpless and increase the negative attitudes towards women. Also people who spend lots of time on playing video game as heavy gamers will increase the possibility of having negative attitudes in regards of stereotypical games portrayal(Miller, 2007).
\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the \"COMM 418: Media Effects: Theory and Research\" course.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tSocial media's rise in prevalence as a social medium has been drastic and fast paced. Within the span of only eight years, from 2006 to 2014, usage amongst US adults climbed from an approximate twenty percent to an approximate seventy five percent. With over three out of every four adults utilizing social media sites in their daily life by 2014 alone this rapid onset of use alongside the growth of scope of such mediums has resulted in numerous questions pertaining to their deployment and engagement. Premising our research question; while we use social media how does it use and affect us? A question we look to address through the examination of Twitter use in relation to individuals reported levels of self agency.
\n\t![\"4\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/barlocknathaniel_6771725_123827268_Image_4.PNG\")
\n\t
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tResearch Question: For social media users, controlling for the medium, what is the relationship between self-agency and frequency of Twitter use?
\n\tHypotheses 1: There will be a negative association between passive Twitter use and an individual’s perception of self-agency.
\n\t![\"1\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/barlocknathaniel_6771725_123827263_Image_1.PNG\")
\n\tHypotheses 2: Frequency of tweeting or engaging with others will predict a higher degree of self-agency.
\n\t![\"2\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/barlocknathaniel_6771725_123827264_Image_2.PNG\")
\n\tHypotheses 3: Degree of engagement with other Twitter users’ tweets will be negatively associated with an individual’s perception of self-agency.
\n\t![\"3\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/barlocknathaniel_6771725_123827267_Image_3.PNG\")
\n\t
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\tThe participants for this study were recruited in two different ways. The first form of recruitment was premised by convenience sampling through the social networks of the researchers. The research team reached out to acquaintances through various social mediums such as GroupMe, Facebook and Twitter and invited these individuals to participate within the study. The second form of recruitment pertains to the Amazon Mechanical Turk system. The qualtrics study was formatted and posted on the MTurk system on two separate occasions in order to gather additional data points and participants. Each of these participation points were premised with an informed consent forum as well as disclaimers pertaining to maintaining participant privacy as well as the minimization of participant risk which we evaluated as being non-existent. Initial respondents after the closing of the data collection phase was N=171, after the data cleaning process and the removal of incomplete surveys our resulting value was N=166. The demographics of these 166 participants were as follows; 48 Female, 117 Male, 1 Non-Binary with a mean age of 31.5 and a range of 49 years. 51% of the participant base reported being White, 24.38% reported being Asian, 17.5% reported being Hispanic or Latino, 2.5% reported being Black of African American and less than 1% reported being American Indian/Alaskan Native or Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander.
\n\t
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\tThese results indicate that there is a substantial correlation between active and passive Twitter use and users experienced levels of agency, supporting both H1 and H3 while also premising the concept that H2 or frequency of engagement does not play a mediating role in agency levels. As such it can be stated that the nature in which you use Twitter has a significant impact on agency levels whereas controlling for frequency of use, no matter the type of engagement, does not have a significant effect. Active users demontrait holding higher levels of agency over passive users, regardless of frequency of use. These findings can be summarized by stating that younger, less educated and passive Twitter users are more likely to experience the lowest levels of agency whereas older, highly educated and active users are more likely to experience the highest levels of reported agency.
\n\t
\n\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tBased on our findings, one can imply that those who spend their time engaging in and creating content on social media, specifically Twitter, the more likely they are to feel a greater sense of agency. On the contrary, we can imply that those who spend their time passively using Twitter are more likely to feel a lesser sense of agency. If an individual wanted to feel more agentic, they should consider contributing content to social media rather than simply browsing through it.
\n\t
\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the \"COMM 418: Media Effects: Theory and Research\" course.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tThe purpose of this study was to further understand the effect that authority cues and content had on perceived message credibility when dealing with information regarding the Covid-19 vaccine. Theories that are explored through this study include the Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion, the MAIN model and confirmation bias and how they relate to such a salient topic such as Covid-19. Our Research question was “For twitter users, what is the effect of Authority Cues (IV) and Content (IV) on perceived message credibility (DV). Our hypotheses predicted that the presence of authority cues would lead to higher perceived credibility and intention to receive the vaccine (H1), as well as predicting that pro-vaccine messages will have higher rated credibility and intentions of receiving vaccine compared to anti-vaccine messages (H2). We also created a two-part hypothesis that predicted participants would identify to the message that aligned with their pre-existing views more than the message that did not (H3A&B). We performed a 2X2 experiment by manipulating authority cues and authors on specific tweets in favor or against the covid-19 vaccine. Participants were shown one of four tweets: High authority in favor of vaccine, high authority against, layperson in favor of the vaccine and layperson against. We then measured feeling of perceived message credibility through combined variables that measured Trust, Expertise, Message Quality and Message Credibility along with another measure that looked at the participants intention to receive the vaccine after the stimuli. Results showed no support for H1, mainly supported H2 and partially supported H3A&B as authority cues were not the reason for high credibility, but content was. H3 was partially supported because we found that individuals agreed with the content they thought was true before the stimuli was shown. Overall, strong effects on perceived credibility were caused by content as pro-vaccine messages were found to be more credible than anti-vaccine messages. We did find strong links to confirmation bias through our partial support for H3.
\n\n\t![\"1\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Picture1.png\")
\n\t![\"2\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Picture2.png\")
\n\t![\"3\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2021-05-13_at_9.58.20_AM.png\")
\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the \" COMM 517: Psychological Aspects of Communication Technology\" course.
\n\n\t
\n\tIntroduction
\n\tWhen facing life stressors, people often reach out to others for social support. Receiving support has been found to enhance individuals’ well-being (Thoits, 2011; Uchino, Bowen, de Grey, Mikel, & Fisher, 2018). However, people may not be able to experience these benefits unless they seek support. While support provision has been studied extensively, less is known about support seeking and support seeking via multiple channels of communication. This study aims to examine how communication channels interact with factors related to support seekers to influence support seeking strategies.
\n\t
\n\tHypotheses
\n\tH1: The richness of the communication channel is positively associated with indirect support seeking strategies, such that people will use more indirect support seeking strategies (i.e., hinting and sighing) in face-to-face interactions and video calls than in text messages or with chatbots
\n\tH2: The effect of modality on the directness of support seeking is mediated by the perceived social presence of the modality such that greater perceived social presence would lead to indirect forms of in support seeking (i.e., hinting and sighing)
\n\tH2a: Support seeking via face-to-face interactions will include more hinting and sighing than support seeking via video calls, text messages, and chatbot because perceived social presence would be greater in the face-to-face condition compared to text messages, video calls, and chatbot conditions.
\n\tH2b: Support seeking via video calls will include more hinting and sighing than support seeking via text messages and chatbot because perceived social presence would be greater in the video calls condition compared to text messages, and chatbot conditions.
\n\tH2c: Support seeking via text messages will include more hinting than support seeking via chatbots because perceived social presence would be greater in the text messages condition compared to the chatbot condition.
\n\tH3: Individuals’ communicative ability, motivation, perceived availability of social support, and perceived severity of stressor will moderate the relationship between perceived social presence and support seeking behaviors.
\n\t
\n\tMethod
\n\tParticipants and Procedures
\n\tParticipants were be recruited from a large Northeastern university to participate in an online survey. First, participants were be asked to recall a stressful event they have experienced. Then, participants were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions (face-to-face, text message, video call, and artificial intelligence (AI) algorithm) where they were asked to imagine themselves seeking support from a close other (except for AI) through that channel. For the AI condition, participants were asked to imagine themselves seeking support from a chatbot. Finally, participants completed a questionnaire regarding the severity of stressor, support seeking strategies (i.e., direct/indirect support seeking), and their ability and motivation to seek support.
\n\tKey Measures
\n\tCommunicative adaptability was measured with 30 items adapted from Duran (1983, 1992). Participants will be asked to rate each statement on a five-point scale on how it relates to their general style of communication in social situations from 1 (never true of me) to 5 (always true of me).
\n\tPerceived availability of social support was measured with 12 items adapted from Zimet et al. (1988). Participants will be asked to indicate the degree to which they agree with the statements on a five-point scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
\n\tPerceived severity of stressor was measured with three items adapted from Burleson et al. (2011). Participants will be asked to indicate the degree to which they perceive the stressor on a five-point scale from 1 (not at all serious/severe/upsetting) to 5 (very serious/severe/upsetting).
\n\tMotivation to seek support was measured with five items adapted from Bodie (2013). Participants will be asked to indicate the degree to which they agree with the statements on a seven-point scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).
\n\tSocial presence was measured with seven items tailored to each experimental condition from Gunawardena & Zittle (1997), aimed to measure participants’ perception of social presence for the communication they were assigned to. Participants were asked to indicate the degree to which they agreed with the statements on a five-point scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
\n\tSupport seeking strategies was measured with 16 items adapted from Derlega et al. (2003). Participants will rate each statement on a five-point scale with higher scores indicating greater reported use of a particular behavior.
\n\t
\n\tResults
\n\tFirst, inconsistent with our predictions, we found that participants in the face-to-face condition reported significantly more verbal direct seeking and less nonverbal indirect seeking behaviors than participants in the other three conditions. And participants in the video call condition reported more verbal direct seeking and less verbal indirect seeking than participants in text message and AI chatbot conditions. Moreover, participants in the text message condition reported more verbal direct seeking than participants in the AI chatbot condition.
\n\tSecond, we found that social presence mediated the relationship between communication channels and support seeking behaviors, such that participants in the face-to-face condition reported significantly higher perceived social presence of their modality than participants in the other three conditions, thus leading to significant more direct verbal seeking behaviors, significantly less indirect verbal seeking behaviors, and less indirect nonverbal seeking behaviors.
\n\tThird, we found evidence supporting that social support and communicative ability moderate the mediational path from modality to support seeking behaviors via social presence, such that the indirect effects of social presence are the strongest when participants have higher social support or communicative ability.
\n\t![\"1\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2021-05-13_at_10.07.57_AM.png\")
\n\t![\"figure1\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2021-05-13_at_10.08.07_AM.png\")
\n\t![\"3\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2021-05-13_at_10.09.11_AM.png\")
\n\tDiscussion
\n\tOur findings offer several theoretical implications for research in interpersonal communication and computer mediated communication. We found support for the dual process theory of supportive communication outcomes. Although the dual process theory of supportive outcomes is traditionally used to explain provisions of social support and evaluations of supportive messages, the findings of our study show that this theory can explain support seeking strategies as well. Furthermore, we also found evidence suggesting that people’s perceptions of social presence explain the relationship between communication channels and support seeking strategies.
\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the \" COMM 517: Psychological Aspects of Communication Technology\" course.
\n\n\t
\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tFake news has become a hot issue in the internet environment. Using the internet's information spread speed, almost real-like fake news is scattered to anyone who is accessing the internet and induces problems. One effective approach to combat fake news and prevent the problems is to display debunking information (Brashier et al., 2021). The goal of this article is to investigate the role of type of modality and preferred learning modality in debunking fake news context. Especially, the psychological mechanism of evaluating and sharing debunking information will be explicated with the degree of realism heuristic of fake news.
\n\t
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tRQ. In the context of debunking fake news, what is the relationship between the type of learning modality, the use of preferred learning modality, perceived vividness of debunking information, realism heuristic of fake news, content credibility, and sharing intention of debunking information?
\n\tH1: Individuals who have debunking information with video modality will perceive higher vividness compared to users who have debunking information with audio and text modality.
\n\tH2: The use of preferred learning modality will moderate the relationship between the type of modality and perceived vividness.
\n\tH3: Perceived vividness of debunking information will mediate the relationship between the type of modality and (a)sharing intention and (b)credibility of debunking information.
\n\tH4: Realism heuristic will moderate the relationship between perceived vividness and sharing intention.
\n\t
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\tThe researchers conducted an online experiment with a 3 (the type of modality - video, audio, read & write) × 2 (preferred modality or not) between-subjects design to investigate the effects of tailoring of debunking modality. The participants were randomly assigned to each modality’s tailoring and not tailoring condition based on their choice of preferred learning modality. 75 college students were recruited from a public research university in the U.S.
\n\t
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\tAccording to the result, the effect of type of learning modality on perceived vividness was significant. Specifically, participants in video modality condition showed significantly higher perceived vividness compared to participants in audio modality condition. The interaction effect of type and using preferred learning modality showed a significant effect on perceived vividness.
\n\tAccording to the mediation analysis, the moderated moderated mediation on sharing intention was significant. Specifically, the video modality increased perceived vividness of debunking information and the interaction effect of the type of modality and the tailoring of learning modality on perceived vividness was also significant. Perceived vividness was positively associated with sharing intention and the relationship was moderated by the realism heuristic of fake news. Thus, H2, H3a, and H4 were supported.
\n\tFurthermore, the analysis result showed a significant moderated mediation of type of modality on content credibility of debunking information. To be more specific, same as the previous result, the type of modality is significantly associated with perceived vividness, and the type of modality and the preferred learning modality showed significant interaction effect on perceived vividness of the debunking information. It indicates that perceived vividness of participants was increased when the debunking modality with video is the tailored modality. Furthermore, perceived vividness is positively associated with content credibility. Thus, H3b was supported.
\n\t![\"figure](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2021-05-13_at_10.06.21_AM.png\")
\n\t![\"figure](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2021-05-13_at_10.06.36_AM.png\")
\n\t
\n\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tThe current study investigates the effectiveness of type and preferred learning modality. According to the result, the type and use of preferred learning modality can influence through perceived vividness from the modality. Specifically, perceived vividness and sharing intention of debunking information relationship was moderated by perceived realism of fake news. On the other hand, perceiving vividness from learning modality was sufficient to evoke content credibility of debunking information. The study contributes to looking for ways of establishing content credibility on debunking information and the ways of promoting sharing debunking information.
\n\t
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\n\n\t
\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tAutism-spectrum disorder (ASD) is one of the most common developmental conditions in the world, is increasing in prevalence, and involves particular challenges to communication skills. These challenges, however, are mainly contextualized to face-to-face communication settings. It may be that autism leads people to balance their communication skill deficits by seeking out more impersonal platforms, such as those online. This study is the first to look at the relationship between individual-level communication technology usage rates and location on the autism spectrum.
\n\t
\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tH1: For all technologies, scores on the Autism Spectrum Quotient will be positively correlated with message usage rates.
\n\tH2: For all technologies, individuals with self-identified autistic status will have significantly higher message usage rates
\n\tH3: For all technologies, scores on the Autism Spectrum Quotient will be positively correlated with feature usage rates
\n\tH4: For all technologies, individuals with self-identified autistic status will have significantly higher feature usage rates.
\n\t
\n\n\t![\"picture1\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2021-05-13_at_10.11.09_AM.png\")
\n\t
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\tThis study used survey methods to answer the hypothesis. We recruited participants via an online panel service, with inclusion criteria of age (over 18) and location (United States). Participants were compensated for their work. The sample (n=128) was reasonably representative of the U.S. population besides being significantly more educated, less Hispanic, and more likely to be employed. The survey included questions on participant access to specific communication technologies and platforms (i.e. cell phones, Facebook, WeChat, Snapchat), rates of usage of specific features, and a measure of why they as users chose it (gratifications). The survey also included a number of theorized co-related variables such as willingness to communicate, as well as several measures of ASD.
\n\t
\n\tRESULTS
\n\tMost statistical tests indicated insignificant relationships between autism-spectrum disorder and communication technology usage. Most correlational results were insignificant, tests between groups were significant, and regression models fared poorly. Additionally, few of the gratification scales were significant predictors of usage. The existence of several exceptions to this overall result, however, indicate that there is tentative, limited evidence that autism can influence usage patterns. Neither willingness to communicate or communication competence provided much explanatory power, and in some instances was a negative predictor of use.
\n\t
\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tOverall, we found limited, but existing, evidence to suggest that autism-spectrum disorder can influence the choices people make about what communication technologies to utilize. Although the extent to which this was the case was less than hypothesized, these findings point to possible coping strategies individuals with ASD can utilize in their business and everyday lives.
\n\t
\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the \" COMM 517: Psychological Aspects of Communication Technology\" course.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tIntroduction
\n\tVideo game modding, the act of modifying a game with software tools to perform a function not originally intended by the developer, is an integral part of the gameplay experience for many players. Despite the growing popularity of mods, the behaviors and motivations of mod users are not well understood. The goal of this study was to explore sense of control (SOC) and sense of identity (SOI) as predictors of game enjoyment and attachment among cosmetic and functional mod users.
\n\t
\n\n\tResearch Question/Hypotheses
\n\tRQ: For video game mod users, controlling for gender and genre, what is the relationship between preferred mod style and feelings of enjoyment and attachment towards the game?
\n\tH1: Preference for functional mod use will increase sense of control, which will positively influence attachment and enjoyment.
\n\tH2: Preference for cosmetic mod use will increase sense of identity, which will positively influence attachment and enjoyment.
\n\t
\n\n\tMethod
\n\tA Qualtrics survey was distributed in online modding forums. All individuals 18 years of age and older who have installed at least one mod were invited to participate in the survey for a chance to win a $50 Amazon gift card. After consenting to participate, respondents were asked about their mod and video game usage. Respondents were then asked to supply the name of the game that they have modded the most and whether they mod this game mainly for cosmetic or functional purposes. Sense of control, sense of identity, attachment, and enjoyment in relation to this game were assessed. Data from 669 respondents (39.5% female; M age = 25.97 years old) were used in the analyses.
\n\t
\n\n\tResults
\n\tA multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was run to examine if enjoyment, attachment, SOI and SOC varied as a function of mod style when controlling for gender and genre. We found significant main effects for mod style, gender and genre. Functional mod users felt a higher SOC and more enjoyment in their game use. To answer our hypotheses, we ran a simple mediation and found SOC was a mediator for the relationship of mod style to both enjoyment and attachment in functional mod users. SOI was not a significant mediator in the relationship between mod style and enjoyment nor attachment. Exploratory findings examined the relationship between mod style and enjoyment as well as attachment through serial mediation of SOC and SOI. We found that SOC still mediated enjoyment and attachment in functional mod users, and that SOI was only present as a mediator on attachment in functional mod users when SOC was present first.
\n\t![\"picture](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2021-05-13_at_10.02.55_AM.png\")
\n\t![\"picture](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2021-05-13_at_10.03.24_AM.png\")
\n\t
\n\n\tConclusion/Discussion
\n\tUsing a survey of mod users, our findings suggest that sense of control is a significant predictor of game attachment and enjoyment for functional mod users. This supports our prediction that functional mod users enjoy games more because they have greater control over them. Contrary to our prediction, sense of identity did not mediate the relationship between mod preference and attachment or enjoyment. We predict this may be due to the medium, and that those who play video games seek control even when changing a game aesthetically. Further research is necessary to examine the role of genre and cosmetic mod users.
\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the \" COMM 517: Psychological Aspects of Communication Technology\" course.
\n\n\t
\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tEnergy Storage and Microgrid (ESAM) systems are becoming more popular around the world because they have the potential to support an increase in the use of renewable energy generation and improve local power quality. However, exposure to microgrid systems can be hazardous, especially for those who do not have much working experience with ESAM systems. The paper will first review the literature pertaining to VR use as an immersive learning environment, the multimedia effect of VR on knowledge attention and perception of learning, and the presence of avatars in VR, and propose a research question. Then, it will present the research methodology, the experimental design, and the data analysis results to address the research question. The findings will then be discussed with the implications for theories. Finally, it will describe the limitations in this research and future research potentiality.
\n\t![\"Picture](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/1.png\")
\n\t![\"picture2\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/2_3.png\")
\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tRQ: For students taking VR vocational training, controlling for content, interactivity, and gender, what is the effect of avatar presence and various information modalities (avatar + audio vs. avatar + text vs. audio only vs. text only) on their learning outcomes and perception of learning.
\n\tH1: Students taking VR vocational training with an avatar and audio will have better learning outcomes, including higher knowledge retention (H1a) and better spatial understanding (H1b) than groups with just text, just audio, and text and avatar.
\n\tH2: Students taking training with an avatar and audio will have a more positive attitude toward the training, including more attention grabbing (H2a), more relevant to the content (H2b), more confident about the training (H2c), and more satisfied with the content (H2d) compared to students taking training with just text, just audio, and text and avatar.
\n\tMETHOD
\n\tTo address the research question, a 2´2 factorial experiment was designed along with evaluation instruments for data collection. A total of 100 undergraduate students volunteered to participate in this research. The convenience sample contained 60 female participants and 40 male participants. Students that wished to participate were directed to a link on Canvas; the link sent them to the survey housed on Qualtrics. The survey randomly assigned the participants to watch one of four training videos captured from one investigator interacting with the desktop version of the VR module. These videos were edited to contain different stimuli situations, which will be described in the next section. After watching the VR training video, each participant was asked to take the IMMS survey. Once this survey was completed, they took a post-training assessment to gauge the information they retained from the lesson, including fundamental knowledge retention and spatial understanding.
\n\t
\n\tRESULTS
\n\tSince there were no significant differences between the independent variables of audio and avatar, audio only, text and avatar, and text only, the researchers decided to compute two new variables to further explore the differences between modalities and the presence of an avatar in VR training; this was the second main session of data analysis. One variable (Modality) contained two groups (with audio & with text). Another variable (Avatar) contained two groups (with avatar & without avatar). A MANCOVA was run to analyze the perception of learning between Modalities and Avatars. There was a significant interaction effect between Modalities and Avatars for Attention ( F (1, 95) = 3.943, p = .05, partial n2 = .040 ). The researchers also found a significant interaction effect between Modalities and Avatars for Relevance ( F (1, 95) = 4.968, p > .05, partial n2 = .050 ).
\n\t![\"picture](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/3_3.png\")
\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tRegarding student's perceptions of motivation and learning, the addition of an avatar in the VR training with audio instruction prompted higher attention-grabbing scores; this is similar to the effects of the Dual Coding theory. However, similar to results from the Limited-Capacity Information Processing theory, adding an image of the avatar to the VR training with text instruction degrades attention grabbing because text and avatar are both visual representations. Despite the limitations of this research, including a non-lab experimental setting and a somewhat low-quality virtual environment, the authors believe that future research on this topic can be implemented with head-mounted devices in a lab setting. Besides, further research can be focused on exploring the impact of various instruction modalities and the presence of avatars on the educational effectiveness of VR workforce training.
\n\tIntroduction
\n\tGame players may share private information, such as password and username, with other players to seek assistance, such as logging in to the game to maintain consistent login records. The information disclosure may cause privacy leaks or issues lost. The research examines the factors impacting game players to disclose information disclosure intention, following communication privacy management theory.
\n\t
\n\n\tResearch Question/Hypotheses
\n\tH1: Privacy ownership rule will be positively related to disclosure intention to a) sensitive information, and b) non-sensitive information.
\n\tH2: Level of privacy ownership rule will be positively correlated with their trust in other game players.
\n\tH3: Trust will be positively correlated with self-disclosure intention on (a) sensitive information and (b) non-sensitive information.
\n\tH4a: The relationship between the degree of trust and the level of sensitive information disclosing intention will be moderated by the degree of privacy risk perception.
\n\tH4b: The relationship between the degree of trust and the level of non-sensitive information disclosing intention will not be moderated by the degree of privacy risk perception.
\n\t
\n\n\tMethod
\n\t300 participants were recruited from Amazon MTturk for the survey research. The final dataset contains 280 questionnaires. Participants signed the consent form, and those who meet the screening criteria answered questions regarding privacy ownership rule, trust, privacy risk perception, and disclosure intention of sensitive and non-sensitive information.
\n\t
\n\n\tResults
\n\tFor the model with the dependent variable of sensitive information disclosure, the moderated mediation model was supported. Privacy ownership rule is positively related to disclosure intention on sensitive information. Privacy ownership rule impacts disclosure intention on sensitive information indirectly via trust. The correlations between trust and disclosure intention on sensitive information were moderated by privacy risk perception. People
\n\twith a higher-level privacy ownership rule show higher trust in others. People with high trust on others are more likely to disclose sensitive information. For people who have a medium or high level of privacy risk perception, higher trust is correlated to higher intention of sensitive information disclosure.
\n\tWe also found that privacy ownership rule is positively related to disclosure intention on non-sensitive information and is positively related to trust. People who have higher privacy ownership rule are more likely to disclose non-sensitive information and trust other players more.
\n\t
\n\n\tConclusions/Discussion
\n\tThe current study investigates the relationship among privacy ownership rule, trust, privacy risk perception, and disclosure intention on sensitive and non-sensitive information. This study reveals the psychological mechanism of sensitive and non-sensitive information disclosure intention in the online game context. The results of the study indicate that the better people follow the privacy ownership rule, the more trust they have in other online game players, the more likely that they disclose information to others. Trust mediates the effect of privacy ownership rule on disclosure intention of sensitive information for individuals who have moderate and high privacy risk perception. On the other hand, disclosure intention of non-sensitive information does not require the trust in other gamers and privacy risk perception also does not impact disclosure intention. In other words, there is only a direct effect between privacy ownership rule and disclosure intention. Following the results, this study contributes to the private information management in the online game as an online community.
\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tLet’s Plays (LPs) are a type of video, often found on YouTube, in which content creators play and commentate on video games. These videos are often seen as humorous and/or informative. Straddling the line between passively watching and actively playing, this study aims to determine if the genre of LP (broken into humorous or informative) allows watchers to enter a state of flow or presence, and how that effects immersion and overall enjoyment levels.
\n\t
\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tRQ: For YouTube users, controlling for escapism behavior and properties of the device used to watch videos, what is the relationship between LP genre on immersion and enjoyment.
\n\tH1: Immersion will vary based on the type of video the participant watches
\n\tH2: Humorous videos will produce the strongest enjoyment response while informative videos will produce the weakest enjoyment response
\n\tH3: Immersion will have a positive relationship with feelings of enjoyment
\n\tH4a: Passive flow will have a positive relationship with feelings of enjoyment
\n\tH4b: Presence will have a positive relationship with feelings of enjoyment
\n\tH5: Immersion will mediate the relationship between video type and enjoyment
\n\t
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\tA three-condition (humor video, informative video, and combined video) between-subjects online experiment. For this study, participants (N = 281) were recruited using Amazon’s MTurk. Participants were conditionally required to have had a 95% approval rating and at least 100 prior HITs completed to ensure data quality (Peer et al., 2014). Additionally, in order to ensure the participants were YouTube users in the United States, only participants from the United States with YouTube accounts were allowed to complete the study. Participants were compensated $1.10 for their participation. A 25-question survey was constructed on Qualtrics in order to experimentally test the effects of LP’s on viewers. The survey randomly assigned participants to one of eight stimulus conditions in order to ensure an equal number of participants watched each video (n=35). The first page of the survey contained a consent form. After completing the consent form, demographic information was recorded. Individuals were then instructed to watch their assigned video with audio. After watching the video, individuals were asked a manipulation check question to determine whether they found the video to be funny or informative. Then measurements of the control variable escapism were recorded followed by measurement of the mediation variable of immersion. The final segment contained measurement of enjoyment and the final control variable of device properties.
\n\t
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\tFindings suggest that Let’s Play videos overall did not vary in their ability to produce enjoyment, immersion, flow and presence which did not support Hypothesis 1 or Hypothesis 2. Analysis of the relationship between immersion, presence, and flow on enjoyment showed a positive relationship which supported Hypotheses 3, 4a, and 4b. Additionally, immersion was found to mediate the relationship between Let’s Plays and enjoyment, but only for the videos that were informative, supporting Hypothesis 5. Individuals in who watched the informative video elicited immersion and the immersion produced from the video lead to higher levels of enjoyment. This relationship was found to be a full mediation as the video conditions direct effect on enjoyment became non-significant.
\n\t
\n\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tWe attempted to replicate a state of passive flow or presence by showing YouTube users a short clip of a LP and measuring their levels of captivation, comprehension, real world dissociation, and transportation. Our findings indicate that a passive flow is possible to achieve when the LP is informative, but not when it is humorous. We postulate that this is due to the nature of a flow state, which requires the user to be learning a new skill of some sort. We also believe presence may have been disrupted from laughter caused by the humorous videos. Further studies should focus on the possibility of passive flow in LPs and other passive media. Practical implications stretch to content creators and the different ways the form media messages, and what really attracts the attention of their audiences.
\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\n\tChanges in personal behavior can have a significant and positive impact on the environment. With the prevalence of the internet and social media, people’s online behavior has the potential to impact their engagement in pro-environmental actions. However, there is little existing research on the relationship between environmental attitude (EA) and social media behavior. Using uses and gratifications theory, this study primarily attempts to fill the knowledge gap in exploring factors that correlate with viewing and creating environmental content on social media, including EA, altruism, and hedonic and eudaimonic motivation.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tH1: Environmental attitude will be positively correlated with eudaimonic media motivations.
\n\tH2: Altruism will be positively correlated to eudaimonic media motivations.
\n\n\tH3: Hedonic motivations will be more strongly positively correlated with curation than creation.
\n\n\tH4: Eudaimonic motivations will have a stronger positive correlation than hedonic motivations to the creation of environmental social media content.
\n\n\tRQ1: For social media users, controlling for gender, race, income, age, and education, what is the relationship between environmental attitude, altruism, and hedonic or eudaimonic motivations for social media use?
\n\n\tRQ2: For social media users, controlling for gender, race, income, age, and education, what is the relationship between hedonic or eudaimonic motivations for social media use and environmentally related social media behavior?
\n\n\t
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\tThis study employed an online survey hosted by Qualtrics and recruited participants through Mechanical Turk (N=202). Besides demographic information, there were four sections in the questionnaire, including altruism, environmental attitude (EA), social media platforms use and media use motivations. Skip logic questions were designed to ensure people answer media use questions according to their preference for media sites. EA was operationalized as appreciation, preservation and utilization. Social media behaviors were operationalized as creation, curation and viewing.
\n\t
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\tH1 was partially supported. There is no significant relationship between appreciation and eudaimonic media motivations for the three platforms, while preservation had positive relationships with eudaimonic motivations for using Instagram and TikTok. Utilization had positive relationships with eudaimonic motivations for using Facebook and Instagram. H2 was supported, verifying the impact of altruism on eudaimonic media motivations. H3 was not supported, while H4 was partially supported because eudaimonic motivations had a stronger positive correlation to the creation of environmental content on Facebook and Instagram. Also，the analysis showed that eudaimonic motivations can mediate the relationship between altruism, appreciation, preservation and environmental behaviors on Facebook and Instagram.
\n\t
\n\n\tCONCLUSION/DISCUSSION
\n\n\tWhile differing results between social media platforms require further research to fully explain, this study found evidence of a relationship between altruism, EA, media motivations, and environmental social media behaviors. Theoretically, the findings indicate that hedonic and eudaimonic motivations may impact not only the kind of media people choose to consume, but the kind of media they decide to produce (curation and creation). Practically, our study could help guide communication strategies for non-profit organizations, businesses, and government offices interested in promoting pro-environmental behaviors through social media.
", "submittedBy": "Mengqi Liao", "submittersEmailAddress": "mul914@psu.edu", "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31063", "31064" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2020-12-22T00:49:00-05:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33943, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "d6045599-1578-4fc1-bc02-9854dc910aef", "siteSettingsId": 33943, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21295, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Am I Just Eating Because I’m Bored?", "slug": "am-i-just-eating-because-im-bored", "uri": "medialab/research-article/am-i-just-eating-because-im-bored", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:31:38-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:31:40-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33943, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/am-i-just-eating-because-im-bored", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/am-i-just-eating-because-im-bored", "subtitle": "TikTok’s #Quarantine15’s Influence on Body Image and Intent to Diet and Exercise", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41820": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Maranda Berndt", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41821": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Magdalayna Drivas", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41822": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Christopher Doty", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tThe 2020 global Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has caused many individuals to increase their media use, including a 23% increased use in social media (Watson, 2020). TikTok is one of the social media apps that’s popularity has increased, due to the interactivity of the app, which rewards users for participating in viral trends (Tidy & Galer, 2020).
\n\tThe #Quarantine15 hashtag emerged as a reference to the weight people were gaining during COVID-19 lockdowns, where many individuals partook in overeating or cooking more often due to being home all the time. It is a play on the phrase “freshman 15”, which is used to describe the weight gained during the first year of college. A survey in the United Kingdom found that about 53% of adults felt worse about their body image during the lockdown, sharing that they felt that social media pressured them to focus on weight loss due to the common conversations about weight gain (“Body Image”, 2020). Body image is not only a stable trait, but it can also be a state that changes due to the contexts surrounding a situation (Cash, 2002; Cash et al., 2002). When it comes to body image, individual’s often compare themselves to others’ looks and abilities (Festinger, 1954). That comparison also extends to individuals presented in the media or social media (Haferkamp & Krämer, 2011), and when an individual finds those comparisons attractive, they may try to imitate the behaviors in order to attain those abilities and looks that they find admirable (Bandura, 1994; Holmstrom, 2004).
\n\tThis study looks the relationship between positivity level of #Quarantine15 videos on TikTok and an individual’s level of state body image, and their level of intent to imitate those behaviors shown in the videos (e.g., dieting and exercise).
\n\t
\n\tRESEARCH QUESTIONS
\n\tRQ1: For individuals, controlling for age, gender, and trait body appreciation, what is the relationship between the positivity level of a #Quarantine15 TikTok video, and the level of state body appreciation?
\n\tRQ2: For individuals, controlling for age, gender, and trait body appreciation, what is the relationship between positivity level of a #Quarantine15 TikTok video, and the level of intent to diet and exercise?
\n\tRQ3: For individuals, controlling for age, and trait body appreciation, what is the relationship between gender and state body appreciation and the level of intent to diet and exercise?
\n\t
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\tAfter receiving IRB review approval, participants were recruited through MTurk and social media sites and completed a brief online survey distributed via Qualtrics after being randomly assigned to a video condition. The video conditions included videos that talked/viewed body image positively, negatively, neutrally, and a control group. The online survey included basic demographic questions, and measured participants state body appreciation, intention to diet and exercise, and their trait body appreciation. The final sample (N = 252) included (n = 127) females, and (n = 125) males. The average age was, and the sample was mainly white (n = 211).
\n\t
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\tMultiple ANCOVAs were deployed in JMP to analyze the relationship between the variables. For RQ1, the results showed that there was a significant relationship between positivity levels of #Quarantine15 videos and state body appreciation (p < .05). For RQ2, an ANCOVA revealed there was no significant relationship between positivity levels of #Quarantine15 videos, and the intent to diet (p = .51) and exercise (p = .71). A significant interaction effect was found between condition and trait body appreciation, with the negative #Quarantine15 video condition having the highest interaction (p < .05). ANCOVA results for RQ3 showed a significant relationship between males and females on intent to diet (p < .01), but no significant relationship between males and females for state body appreciation (p = .54) or intent to exercise (p = .98).
\n\t
\n\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSIONS
\n\tThis study found that positivity levels of #Quarantine15 videos are related to an individual’s state body appreciation. However, those who were in the control group seemed to have the highest state body appreciation, meaning that their state body appreciation was the highest when they were not exposed to a video showing/discussion body image at all. The study also found that there was no relationship between positivity levels of #Quarantine15 videos and the intent to diet or exercise. Which could mean that even though an individual’s body image can be affected by a video, does not mean that they will go as far as imitating that behavior. The interaction effect found between condition and trait body appreciation went against prior research because it found that individuals who watched videos discussing body image negatively, had better body image than the other conditions. Finally, this study showed that gender did not play a significant role in the relationship between gender and state body appreciation. This goes along with current research, which states that males are just as affected by body image as females. This study also found that males had greater intent to diet than females, which goes against current research. Prior research has found that females’ intent to diet is often more affected by thin-ideal media than males (Harrison, 2000; McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2001), and males' intent to exercise is more affected (Agliata & Tantleff-Dunn, 2004), however, this study did not find a significant relationship between gender and intent to exercise. These findings are important because they help further the understanding of the influence media can have on how individuals view themselves and appreciate their bodies.
\n\t
\n\tOver the last few decades, video games have become a widely popular form of mass media. One of the most popular games of 2020 is Nintendo’s Animal Crossing: New Horizons. Released the same time the United States enforced mandatory quarantine regulations due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Animal Crossing flew off the shelves and pushed Nintendo to produce more units of their popular console, the Switch. What made this game so popular? This study explores this question by conducting an online survey of Animal Crossing players in order to measure levels of socialization and escapism gratifications produced by playing the game.
\n\n\tResearch Question and Hypothesis
\n\n\tRQ1
\n\tFor Nintendo Animal Crossing players during the first three months of the COVID-19 pandemic controlling for gender, age, country of residence during the COVID-19 mandatory quarantine period, and essential worker status during the COVID-19 mandatory quarantine period, what is the relationship between in-person social interactions and playing Animal Crossing socialization and escapism gratifications?
\n\tH1
\n\tPlaying Animal Crossing will positively relate to an individual’s socialization and escapism gratifications during the first three months of the COVID-19 quarantine period
\n\tMethod
\n\tA web-based survey with mobile digital device accessibility was constructed in Qualtrics to collect participant data. The survey questionnaire utilized in this study has theoretical underpinnings of uses and gratifications theory and video game effects. The measurement instrument was based on Sherry et al.’s (2006) video game uses and gratifications study questionnaire. Seven-point Likert scales, ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7), allowed participants to express whether they disagreed or agreed with the proposed statements. Questions focused on three periods: the time frame prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the first three months of the COVID-19 pandemic, and the time frame following the quarantine period. The sampled population included 218 participants.
\n\tResults
\n\tThough there was not a significant relationship between the RQ’s projected independent variable, prior: in-person social-related interactions 2+ week, and its dependent variables, during: social and during: escapism, the independent variable, prior: played, showed a significant relationship with both dependent variables. By applying a multiple regression with a cross construct model utilizing both independent variables, the results of this test for both dependent variables was significant. This confirms that controlling for gender, age, country of residence during the COVID-19 mandatory quarantine period, and essential worker status during the COVID-19 mandatory quarantine period, Animal Crossing players during the first three months of the COVID-19 quarantine period had a positive relationship between playing the game and their in-person social interactions prior to the pandemic and their socialization and escapism gratifications gained from playing Animal Crossing during the COVID-19 mandatory quarantine period.
\n\tThrough the dichotomization of the prior: played variable between high and low participant responses, the relationships between the two independent variables and the dependent variables are easily visualized. This visualization indicates that there is a positive relationship between playing Animal Crossing and a respondent’s social interactions of two or more times per week prior to the COVID-19 mandatory quarantine period. Finally, an individual’s social interactions and level of playing Animal Crossing prior to the COVID-19 quarantine period led to a higher level of socialization and escapism gratifications playing the game during the first three months of the COVID-19 quarantine period.
\n\tConclusion and Discussion
\n\tConsistent with previous research, this study found that an individual’s uses and gratifications fulfill their social and psychological needs for media when this media is deemed impactful. Though the results of this study did not fall in line with initial research question expectations, the results of the analysis indicate that an individual’s video game socialization and escapism gratifications are in fact related not only to the individual’s social interactions but also to their previous game play. This is notably true in the face of a hardship, as was imposed on many by the COVID-19 pandemic and the ensuing mandatory quarantine period.
\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\n\tAlthough there is still a long way to go before text-based conversational chatbots become real healthcare helpers, studies have showed the promising effects of chatbots as psychological companions. In the human-chatbot interaction, giving users the choice of tailoring the chatbot more similar to them is expected to reduce uncertainties in the early stages of building a relationship with companion chatbots. While some users appreciate customization, others do not. This study is thereby dedicated to investigating the effects of customization and the underlying mechanisms and contributing to the current customization literature in understanding human-chatbot interaction.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\n\tH1: Users who customized their own companion chatbot will perceive a higher level of control over the interaction.
\n\tH2: Perceived control will mediate the effects of customization and lead to (a) better evaluations towards the chatbot, (b) enjoyment of interaction and (c) greater behavioral intentions towards the chatbot.
\n\tH3: Users who customized their own companion chatbot will perceive a higher level of sense of identity.
\n\tH4: Higher sense of identity will mediate the effects of customization and lead to (a) better evaluations towards the chatbot, (b) enjoyment of interaction and (c) greater behavioral intentions towards the chatbot.
\n\tH5: Users who customized their own companion chatbot will have a higher level of perceived homophily.
\n\tH6: Higher level of perceived homophily will mediate the effects of customization and lead to (a) better evaluations towards the chatbot, (b) enjoyment of interaction and (c) greater behavioral intentions towards the chatbot.
\n\tH7: Users who customized their own companion chatbot will have lower level of expectancy violation.
\n\tH8: Higher level of expectancy violation will mediate the effects of customization and lead to (a) better evaluations towards the chatbot, (b) enjoyment of interaction and (c) greater behavioral intentions towards the chatbot.
\n\tRQ: Does 1) power usage, 2) machine heuristic moderate the mediation of perceived customization in the relationship between self-as-source in a) chatbot evaluation, b) enjoyment of interaction and c) behavioral intention?
\n\t
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\n\tA two-condition (customization vs. non-customization) between-subject online experiment was conducted via Qualtrics. A total of 167 participants were recruited and equally distributed in the two conditions: customization (N = 85) and control (N = 82, 49.1%). Participants in the experimental condition were offered three choices of customizing a companion chatbot (name, gender, personality) and a yoking strategy was employed to assign participants to the control condition. In both conditions, participants interacted with a companion chatbot before answering questions relating to their attitudes and behavioral intentions towards the chatbot.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\n\tThe serial mediation of perceived customization and the separate mediation of perceived control, sense of identity, perceived homophily, and expectation violation were found statistically significant in the relationship of customization with the chatbot evaluation and user intention. The results lent support to all the hypotheses. When users perceived the chatbot as more customized, they perceived more control, greater sense of identity, greater similarity with the chatbot, and less expectation violation, and subsequently they gave more positive evaluation and expressed greater user intention. For the two research questions, we found significant moderated mediation effects of formative machine heuristic. When users perceived a higher level of customization, those who have greater formative machine heuristic perceived greater similarities with the chatbot and greater sense of identity compared to those with lower formative machine heuristic. In addition, power users experienced a greater sense of identity when they perceived the chatbot as highly customized compared to non-power users. And people's expertise in technology did influence their perceptions of chatbot customization. Lastly, there was a significant main effect of gender match on social attraction. When users interacted with a chatbot of the same gender, they perceived the chatbot to be more socially attractive.
\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tTheoretically, we applied the agency model of customization in the chatbot context and confirmed the two proposed psychological mechanisms, the perceived control and sense of identity. Additionally, perceived homophily and expectation violation were found as two other psychological mechanism involved in customizing a companion chatbot. Practically, our study addressed how to improve chatbot experiences by considering users’ perspectives. People’s perception of a companion chatbot could be affected by simply interacting with customizations and being the source of actions, which has valuable practical implications for chatbot designers. Future studies could examine the effects of more chatbot customization options over long-term interactions, and explore other psychological mechanisms such as social presence.
\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\n\tOnline dating sites are a convenient and strategic way for adults to locate other individuals who are seeking a romantic interest, and they are growing in popularity (Anderson et al., 2020; Ramirez et al., 2015). According to a 2019 PEW research survey, three-in-ten U.S. adults say they have ever used an online dating site or application (Anderson et al., 2020). Recent literature (Caughlin & Sharabi, 2013; Parks, 2017; Ramirez et al., 2015; Ramirez & Zhang, 2007) on the topic of online dating have exposed notable patterns relating to communication behaviors and relational outcomes. By analyzing modality switching behaviors, channel affordances, and the multiplexity effect, the present study aims to test successful online dating perspectives and explore new directions for future research.
\n\tAdditionally, due to the time period this study was distributed, the study contains items relating to the Covid-19 viral outbreak. Exploratory items related to Covid-19 aim to capture changes in online dating behaviors caused by the viral outbreak. Overall, this research intends to challenge current online dating perspectives and establish future directions for research on the topic of online dating.
\n\t
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\n\tRQ1: In the context of online dating, what is the first channel that a couple switches communication to when they initially move from the original dating platform to an alternative channel?
\n\tRQ2a: Which perceived channel affordances are associated with couples’ switching from a dating service to the next alternative communication channel?
\n\tRQ2b: Which perceived channel affordances are associated with couples’ most frequently used communication channel?
\n\tH1: The number of shared communication channels between a couple will be positively related to perceptions of relational closeness and satisfaction.
\n\tRQ3: Have precautions related to the Covid-19 viral outbreak influenced online dating behaviors and outcomes?
\n\t
\n\tMETHOD
\n\tParticipants were recruited through Qualtrics and completed a brief online self-report survey. The final sample (N = 344) was distributed nationwide and stratified by age, gender, and region. The sample was (n = 173; 50.30%) female, (n = 169; 49.13%) male, and (n = 2; 0.006%) intersex. The average age of the sample was 44 (SD = 14.69). In general, the sample was mostly white (n = 273, 79.4%), with 10.76% reporting African-American (n= 37), 5.52% reporting Hispanic/Latinx (n= 19), and 2.24% reporting Asian (n= 8).
\n\n\t
\n\tThe online self-report survey included basic demographic questions, asked participants about a recent online dating experience, and included some exploratory questions relating to Covid-19. Questions relating to an online dating experience ask participants to recall details from a recent relationship developed through an online dating service. Measures in this section address a couple’s modality switching behaviors, use of communication channels, reasons for choosing those channels, relational closeness, and relational satisfaction. Specifically, the survey asks participants to report on the next communication channel they switched communication to outside of the original dating platform which they met a potential dating partner. Also, we about a couple’s most frequently used communication channel to compare differences between modality switching behaviors and relational outcomes. Additional questions related to Covid-19 ask participants to report on whether their online dating behaviors have changed as a result of the viral outbreak.
\n\t
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\n\tWith regard to RQ1, we found that the next communication channel a couple switches to, after meeting on an original dating platform, is significantly related to the original dating platform they met (p < .05). Also, the most frequent channel of communication was significantly related to the next communication channel (p < .001).
\n\n\tRQ2 concerned observing participants’ ratings of the importance of certain channel affordances relating to their next channel and most frequent communication channel. An ANOVA revealed that the affordances social presence (p < .01) and network association (p < .001) were significantly associated with a couple’s next communication channel outside of the original dating platform. Whereas, with regards to a couples’ most frequent communication channel, the affordances of social presence (p < .05), network association (p < .001), and anonymity (p < .05) were significantly associated.
\n\n\tH1 was supported. Through a regression analysis, we analyzed how the number of shared communication channels available between a couple relates to ratings of relational closeness and relational satisfaction. The results support the notion that the number of shared communication channels between a couple is positively related to ratings of relational closeness (p < .01) and relational satisfaction (p < .01).
\n\n\tLastly, exploratory items related to Covid-19 were analyzed by observing notable patterns in descriptive and frequencies. Of the final sample (N = 344), 197 participants reported that their online dating behaviors have changes in light of Covid-19. Specifically, participants reported spending a different amount of time on dating channels and others (N = 85; 43%) even reporting changing their preferred online dating service entirely.
\n\n\t
\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tOur findings indicate that couples who meet on online dating services utilize mediated channels often and frequently shift mediated channels when initially switching communication from a dating service to an alternative channel. Additionally, our findings indicate a couple’s next communication channel and most frequent communication channels have different affordances associated with their use. This study also found support for the media multiplexity effect. Specifically, the number of shared communication channels a couple has available was significantly related to important relational outcomes. Lastly, our data suggests that people are changing their online dating behaviors because of Covid-19. Overall, this study found notable support for current online dating perspectives and offers insight for future research to build off of.
\n\n\t
", "submittedBy": "Olivia Cohen", "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31067" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2019-12-13T09:14:00-05:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33911, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "7b64e6db-2aad-4d81-a04b-66afea5168cc", "siteSettingsId": 33911, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21287, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "AR for news", "slug": "ar-for-news", "uri": "medialab/research-article/ar-for-news", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:31:32-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:32:20-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33911, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/ar-for-news", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/ar-for-news", "subtitle": "Exploring its impact on emotions, perceived understandability, content credibility and sharing intention among news readers", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41792": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Zicheng Cheng", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41793": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Zheng Cui", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41794": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sahiti Kunchay", "degreeCandidacy": null } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the COMM 506 course.
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\n\t
\n\tImmersive journalism has been under discussion these days. Different from the traditional textual or video news, immersive news can provide a first-person experience of the news story. While previous studies have investigated the effects of 360 degrees video and VR news, we are interested to find out if AR news can induce the similar emotion and cognition effects.
\n\t
\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\t
\n\n\tH1: When AR technology is added to immersive news, it will elicit a higher level of presence compared to immersive news.
\n\n\tH2: When AR technology is added to immersive news, it will elicit a higher level of understandability compared to immersive news.
\n\n\tH3: When AR technology is added to immersive news, it will elicit a higher level of positive emotion experience compared to immersive news.
\n\n\tH4: When AR technology is added to immersive news, it will elicit a higher level of perceived content credibility compared to immersive news.
\n\n\tH5: When AR technology is added to immersive news, it will elicit a higher level of sharing intention compared to immersive news.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tMediators:
\n\n\tH6: The presence heuristic will mediate the relationship between modality and perceived quality.
\n\n\tH7: The perceived quality will mediate the relationship between presence heuristic and the perceived content credibility.
\n\n\tH8: The perceived quality will mediate the relationship between presence heuristic and the sharing intention.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tModerators:
\n\n\tH9: Gender will moderate the relationship between the modality and the sharing intention.
\n\n\tH10: Gender will moderate the relationship between the modality and the content credibility.
\n\n\tH11: College of the participants will moderate the relationship between the modality and the sharing intention.
\n\n\tH12: College of the participants will moderate the relationship between the modality and the content credibility.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\n\tAn experiment was conducted among the graduate students in Penn State University. The total sample size is 29, with 10 female and 19 male students. Participants were randomly assigned to either of the conditions: immersive news or immersive + AR news. We have chosen the New York Times article “Apollo 11: As we shot it” as the stimulus. After finishing reading the news, participants filled out the questionnaire.
\n\n\t![\"02\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/02.jpg\")
\n\t![\"03\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/03.jpg\")
\n\t
\n\tRESULTS
\n\tWhen the flow is better, the more excited, appealed, interested people will feel when reading the story. When people feel they are present in the story scene, they will understand the story better, have a higher credibility perception and sharing intention. Likewise, when they have a feeling of realism, they think the story is more credible, which aligns with the findings of previous immersive news study (Sundar et al., 2017).
\n\n\tHowever, contrary to the hypotheses, the immersive news turns out to elicit a higher sense of being there than the AR news. Our study doesn’t show the AR news can elicit higher level of presence, understandability, positive emotions, credibility perception or sharing intention.
\n\n\t![\"table](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Cheng_Table1.PNG\")
\n\t
\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tThe contribution of our study has two folds:
\n\t1. The presence heuristic can play a significant role in the interactive media consumption experience. It can affect people’s understandability and affect towards the interactive news article, which supports the findings in MAIN model (Sundar, 2008).
\n\t2. However, our result indicates that AR might not necessarily have a positive outcome. The “failure” of AR news might be due to the usability difficulties and imperfect AR design of the news story, which suggests that investing in AR news might not always be a good strategy for the news outlets. From the perspective experiment design, we need to enlarge the sample size and improve the experiment operations in the future.
\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the Comm 506 course.
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\n\tThe scalability of social network sites increased the chances of individuals to encounter face threats (other provided negative information). Existing research on face threat coping strategies on social media has mixed results. This study focuses on identifying different types of response strategies individuals will adopt when they encounter different kinds of face threat on Instagram. This study test (1) the relationship between different face threatening content on Instagram and response strategies and (2) the mediating role of negative emotional reaction and perceived offenders’ intention in the above process.
\n\t
\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tH1: Individuals exposed to lower face threat context will be more likely to adopt ignoring strategies than those who exposed to higher face threat context.
\n\n\tH2: Individuals exposed to lower face threat context will be more likely to adopt justification strategies than those who exposed to higher face threat context.
\n\n\tH3: Individuals exposed to higher face threat context will be more likely to adopt withdraw strategies than those who exposed to lower face threat context.
\n\n\tH4: Individuals exposed to higher face threat context will be more likely to adopt confronting strategies than those who exposed to lower face threat context.
\n\n\tRQ1: Will the effects of degree of face threat on response strategies be mediated by negative emotional valence?
\n\n\tRQ2: Will the effects of degree of face threat on response strategies be mediated by perceived intention of others on Instagram?
\n\n\t
\n\t
\n\tMETHOD
\n\tAfter receiving the IRB review approval, from November 13th to November 27th in 2019 an online survey was distributed via Qualtrics. Participants were recruited from undergraduate students from the College of Communications at Penn State. Each participant was rewarded extra credit for completing the 10-minute survey. The survey designed three hypothetical face threat situations (being tagged by undesired post, violating norms post, revenge post) on Instagram in order to explore what strategies individuals would adopt to respond to different face threats on Instagram. Participants reported their emotional reaction and perceived intention of offender after exposure to each hypothetical face threat condition. Each participant was exposed to all three face threat conditions. Eventually, a total of 314 valid questionnaires were collected.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\n\tA univariate split-plot approach in JMP was used to analyze the differences in major variables between three conditions. ANOVA results showed that there were significant differences in response strategies when individuals facing lower face threat and higher face threat. In both exposure to undesired post and exposure to social norms violation post face threat situation, individuals adopt similar strategies such as disengagement or justification. In the exposure to revenge porn situation, individuals tend to use withdrawal strategies or confront offender. Testing by Hayes’s (2017) “PROCESS” macro (model 6), the results showed that both perceived intentions of others and emotional reaction served as mediators between type of face threat (dummy coded 0 = low face threat; 1 = high face threat) and withdrawal strategies or confronting strategies. Consistently, the mediation effect of emotional reaction must go through perceived intention. Higher face threat was associated with higher level of perceived intention which led to more negative emotional reaction, and then led to behaviors of withdrawal strategies and confront strategies.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\n\tThis study found that individuals exposed to lower face threat intend to disengage or justify the situation because individuals might perceive this action unintentional and inoffensive. However, individuals exposed to higher level of face threat such as revenge sex pictures or videos from ex-partners intend to withdrawal the post or confront the offender. In order to regain a sense of control, individuals try to untag themselves from the post or report the post to Instagram. Although Instagram does not have the feature of untagging, individuals expressed their intent to do that. Most importantly, this study found that perceived intention and emotional reactions were two important mediators to explain the mechanism of choosing strategies to cope with different degree of face threat. Individuals perceived others’ intention first before they had emotional reactions after exposure to face threat. Perceived intention was positively related to emotional reaction. Emotional reactions cannot explain the whole path between degree of face threat and withdrawal strategies which can be explained through appraisal theory of emotions that individuals would appraisal the event first before they adopt coping strategies situation. The findings have theoretical implication for face threat scholarship and practical implication for Instagram design.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31062", "31063", "31067", "31075", "31076" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2019-12-13T03:10:57-05:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33897, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "b7a6cf3d-6f86-4be1-ae66-9a4ab0dbf00e", "siteSettingsId": 33897, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21283, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Does Video Production Value Influence the Credibility of Science Information", "slug": "does-video-production-value-influence-the-credibility-of-science-informatio", "uri": "medialab/research-article/does-video-production-value-influence-the-credibility-of-science-informatio", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:31:30-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:13:46-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33897, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/does-video-production-value-influence-the-credibility-of-science-informatio", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/does-video-production-value-influence-the-credibility-of-science-informatio", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41780": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Ahmed Al Rawi", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41781": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Matt Cikovic", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41782": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Matt Swayne", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the Comm 506 course.
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\n\tVideo with higher production quality has been associated with increased trust in message and source credibility. However, the increased dissemination of amateur videos and the reliance of video posts on social media for news content and science news content, specifically, make understanding credibility cues, such as video quality, in video formats important. While researchers have long studied the effect of quality on both message and source credibility, not a lot is known about whether the aesthetic reaction to video production quality can change over time and whether this impacts the credibility of science news videos.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\n\tRQ1:For individuals, controlling for age and media preference, what is the relationship between video production value and credibility?
\n\n\tRQ2:For individuals, controlling for age and media preference, what is the relationship between video production value and message recall?
\n\n\tH1a:For younger, less traditional media consumers content with better production value will be seen as less credible than content with lower production value.
\n\n\tH1b:For older, more traditional media consumers content with better production value will be seen as more credible than content with lower production value.
\n\n\tH2a:Content with better production value will have higher message memorability than content with lower production value.
\n\n\tH2b:Content with lower production value will have higher message memorability than content with higher production value.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\n\tWe conducted an experiment on Amazon Mechanical Turk in which we sent subjects (n=82) to a website where they were randomly assigned to one of two stimuli and then filled out a survey afterwards to measure their perceptions. The videos the subjects viewed were operationalized as either high or low “production quality” and then measurements were taken on their perceptions of the video’s source and message credibility, its message memorability, and also some questions concerning whether or not the viewer even perceived the videos as having either high or low levels of production quality.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\n\tFor RQ1, a one-way ANOVA showed that there is a significant relationship between video production quality and message/source credibility, with low production value. We did not find significant results for the other questions and hypotheses.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\n\tIn line with the expectations of theories on media credibility and persuasion, when comparing types of media exposure, we found that video production value positively affected the combined source and message credibility condition for those who primarily watch more television. This finding did affirm source credibility theory, for example, which would surmise a relationship between the surface credibility cues of video production value and persuasiveness.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31066", "31076", "31077" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2019-12-13T02:47:07-05:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33889, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "0a066134-8265-46c7-8236-54f99cbb9739", "siteSettingsId": 33889, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21281, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Who’s Telling the Story? The Effects of Identity Cues and Advertisement Type on Chatbot Advertising", "slug": "whos-telling-the-story-the-effects-of-identity-cues-and-advertisement-type", "uri": "medialab/research-article/whos-telling-the-story-the-effects-of-identity-cues-and-advertisement-type", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:31:28-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:13:44-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33889, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/whos-telling-the-story-the-effects-of-identity-cues-and-advertisement-type", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/whos-telling-the-story-the-effects-of-identity-cues-and-advertisement-type", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41773": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Yuan Sun", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41774": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jin Chen", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41775": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Feier Chen", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\n\tChatbots, as one type of AI that businesses see as a game-changer, have a real potential on customer experience. While chatbots are widely utilized to deliver promotion messages to target customers, how to enhance user experience and the consequential acceptance of chatbot advertising has been a challenge. The present study looks into how to enhance the effectiveness of chatbot advertising by coordinating chatbot identities and advertising content.
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\n\tRQ: For chatbot users, controlling for product involvement, what is the relationship between chatbot identity cues, ad types and chatbot evaluation, attitudes toward the adverting and patronage intention?
\n\n\tH1: Chatbot with human name identity cues will lead to higher levels of perceived homophily.
\n\n\tH2: Higher levels of perceived homophily through chatbot identity cues will lead to more favorable attitudes towards (a) the chatbot, (b) the push-in ads and (c) greater patronage intentions for the product.
\n\n\tH3: Narrative ad pushed by a chatbot will lead to greater level of (a) transportation (b) message involvement.
\n\n\tH4: Higher level of transportation through ad types will lead to greater positive attitudes towards (a) the chatbot, (b) the push-in ad and (c) greater patronage intentions for the product.
\n\n\tH5: Higher level of message involvement through ad types will lead to greater positive attitudes towards (a) the chatbot, (b) the push-in ad and (c) greater patronage intentions for the product.
\n\n\tH6: Narrative ad type of chatbot push-in ads from a chatbot will lead to less perceived intrusiveness.
\n\n\tH7: Higher level of perceived intrusiveness through ad type will lead to less positive attitudes towards (a) the chatbot, (b) the push-in ads and (c) greater patronage intentions for the product.
\n\n\tH8: Chatbot profile and ad type will jointly influence people’s evaluation of the chatbot through expectancy violation.
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\n\tWe conducted a 2 (Chatbot identity cues: machine name vs. human name) × 2 (Ad types: factual vs. narrative) between-subjects online experiment (N = 94). After giving consent to participate in the study, participants were randomly assigned to the four conditions and interacted with a chatbot via Messenger. Regardless of the question order, after asking the chatbot about the “day”, “date” and “weather”, participants were exposed to a print ad of a digital camera, followed by the link of the second questionnaire after one-minute exposure. Participants then finished the questionnaire and completed the whole study.
\n\n\t![\"Fig.](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/7758/SUNCHENCHEN01.PNG\")
\n\t![\"Fig.](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/SUNCHENCHEN02_1.PNG\")
\n\t
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\n\tNo significant main effects of chatbot identity or ad type were found with the study sample. While transportation was found to mediate the effects of ad type on attitudes toward the ad and patronage intention, narrative ad was found to lead to lower level of transportation, which were opposite to our hypotheses (see Table 1). Exploratory analyses generate interesting findings. First, identity cue and ad type interactively affect perceived intrusiveness, suggesting a chatbot with a human (machine) name is rather congruent with narrative (factual) ads (see Figure 3). Second, males in general report greater social attraction of the chatbot, ad transportation, message involvement, and patronage intention than females. Furthermore, the three-way interactions between identity cue, ad type, and gender show that males are more involved in the message than females when a chatbot with a human (machine) name pushes factual (narrative) ads (see Figure 4).
\n\n\t
\n\n\t![\"Fig.](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/SUNCHENCHEN03_1.PNG\")
\n\t
\n\n\t![\"Fig.](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/SUNCHENCHEN04_1.PNG\")
\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\n\tThe interaction effect between identity cue and ad type on perceived intrusiveness show that chatbots with human (machine) names may be more congruent with narrative (factual) ads, leading to lower perceived intrusiveness when pushing the congruent ads. The results echo the language expectancy theory which suggests that people’s expectations of experiences and expressions in interpersonal communication are shaped by communicator characteristics.
\n\n\tOur exploratory findings showed that gender not only has main effects on perceived social attraction, transportation, message involvement, and patronage attention, but also interactively influences message involvement together with identity cue and ad type. Males report more favorable evaluations of the chatbot (i.e. social attraction), the ad (i.e. transportation, message involvement), and the product (i.e. patronage intention). Males are also more involved in reading the message when identity cue and ad type are not congruent. Since males and females are known to adopt different information processing strategies, males tend to rely on heuristic processing and base their perceptions on cues that are salient in the context. Thus, they might be more influenced by the information presented in the stimuli including the chatbot conversation and the ad. The other explanation for the gender effects is that gender influences people’s attitudes toward technology usage. Females’ technology adoption decisions are more influenced by subjective norm and perceived behavioral control, while males’ decisions are more influenced by their attitude toward using the new technology.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31066", "31076", "31077" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2019-12-13T02:33:59-05:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33883, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "1fa6ca64-6632-4b43-a662-38280cb77e17", "siteSettingsId": 33883, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21279, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Are Silent Speech Interactions the Future of Voice Activated Personal Assistants?", "slug": "are-silent-speech-interactions-the-future-of-voice-activated-personal-assis", "uri": "medialab/research-article/are-silent-speech-interactions-the-future-of-voice-activated-personal-assis", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:31:27-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:13:42-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33883, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/are-silent-speech-interactions-the-future-of-voice-activated-personal-assis", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/are-silent-speech-interactions-the-future-of-voice-activated-personal-assis", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41768": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Nicholas Eng", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41769": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Abdelhady Abuolba", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the Comm 506 course.
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\n\tThis study investigates differences in two different modalities of Voice Activated Personal Assistants (VAPAs). Silent Speech Interactions (SSIs) are an emerging technology that we believe could be comparable to current Voice User Interactions (VUIs) and potentially combat current consumer concerns with VUIs.
\n\n\t
\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tOverarching RQ: For users of VAPAs, controlling for age and gender, what is the relationship between Silent Speech Interactions (SSI) use, and perceived ease of use, usability, usefulness, social acceptability, sense of security, privacy concern, and satisfaction?
\n\n\tRQ1: For VAPA users, controlling for age and gender, will SSIs evoke higher levels of sense of control, ease of use, usability, usefulness, and satisfaction, compared to VUIs?
\n\n\tRQ2: For VAPA users, controlling for age and gender, will SSIs evoke higher overall levels of social acceptability compared to VUIs?
\n\n\tRQ3: For VAPA users, controlling for age and gender, will SSIs evoke lower levels of privacy concerns and higher levels of sense of security compared to VUIs?
\n\n\tH1: There is a positive relationship between perceived ease of using SSIs and satisfaction.
\n\n\tH2: There is a positive relationship between perceived usefulness of SSI and satisfaction.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\n\tOur research method consisted of two Adobe XD prototypes comparing the different modalities of SSIs and VUIs. Participants were recruited in a high traffic setting in a library to simulate a public place. 25 participants were randomly assigned to one of the two conditions and after completing the consent form, instructed to walk around and interact with the prototype without researcher intrusion. Participants in the silent speech condition were shown an instructional video on what the new technology is and how it works. Upon completion of the prototypes, participants were instructed by the final screen to approach the researchers to complete a questionnaire consisting of questions on their perceptions of the interaction.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\n\tBesides ease of use and usefulness, no statistically significant results were found for the variables of RQ1. Users in the SSI group found that interaction significantly more useful and older participants found SSIs and VUIs less easy to use. RQ2 and RQ3 were not supported with no statistically significant results being found. Ease of use was found to predict satisfaction while usability did not. Exploratory analysis was conducted finding that while controlling for gender, silent speech resulted in higher scores for usability. Along with that, a two-way interaction between gender, modality, and usability was found along with a two-way interaction between gender, modality, and satisfaction.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\n\tOverall, our findings suggest that if developed and released into the market, VAPAs equipped with SSI could enjoy similar levels of popularity with consumers of VUI-equipped VAPAs. Since SSIs have yet to be studied in the field of Human-Computer Interactions, our study is novel and has practical and theoretical implications for those who are in industry and academia.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": "Dr. S. Shyam Sundar by e-mail at sss12@psu.edu or by telephone at (814) 865-2173", "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2019-05-03T02:38:06-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33877, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "c11f2f90-2430-434d-bda3-598e0417b0c0", "siteSettingsId": 33877, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21277, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The Effects of Affective Framing and Interactivity on Persuasive e-Learning", "slug": "the-effects-of-affective-framing-and-interactivity-on-persuasive-e-learning", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-effects-of-affective-framing-and-interactivity-on-persuasive-e-learning", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:31:26-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:13:40-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33877, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-effects-of-affective-framing-and-interactivity-on-persuasive-e-learning", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-effects-of-affective-framing-and-interactivity-on-persuasive-e-learning", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41763": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jacob Oury", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41764": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Srishti Gupta", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the “COMM517 Psychological Aspects of Communication Technology” course.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\n\tIn this study we explore how psychological mechanisms of persuasive design are affected by interactivity and message framing for information presented to users through an interactive article about user experience and usability. We used a 3 (Message Interactivity: High/Medium/Low) x 2 (Framing: Gain/Loss) factorial experiment (N=126) to determine whether interactivity and framing would have differential effects on the value that a person placed on user experience and usability after reading the interactive article. We found that changing interactivity was associated with changes to value proposition, but there was no effect found for framing on the subjects’ value proposition for user experience and usability.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\n\tH1: Positive framing will show greater value proposition than negative framing.
\n\n\tH2: Higher interactivity will be correlated with higher value proposition, particularly for low-involvement users.
\n\n\tH3: Interactivity will be correlated with higher interface assessment scores.
\n\n\tH4: Elaboration will differ across interactivity conditions and higher elaboration will be associated with a higher value proposition.
\n\n\tRQ1: How do interactivity and framing affect value proposition and self-reported elaboration?
\n\n\t
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\n\tWe developed a 3 (Message Interactivity: High/Medium/Low) x 2 (Framing: Gain/Loss) fully factorial, between-subjects experiment on Mechanical Turk to find out how interactivity and framing would affect the value proposition of users of a simple, interactive website to learn about the basics of usability. The participants were directed to an interactive website where they were instructed to read through a brief article about the basic of usability. After this, they completed a post-survey.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\n\tWe found that the framing manipulation did not results in significant differences for any outcomes variables, including the primary dependent variable perceived value. We could not support any findings about framing which led us to dismiss H1. We also were unable to establish an effective manipulation with framing using our manipulation check questions. We also analyzed interactivity’s effects on perceived value of usability. We found that H2 was partially supported; the high interactivity condition had the highest perceived value, though low interactivity was second highest. Our framing manipulation check for interactivity, perceived interactivity, did not show significant group differences however which tempers these results. Our comparisons for interactivity condition on elaboration and interface assessment also did not show significant differences which led us to dismiss H3 and H4. There was no significant interaction found between interactivity and framing, which was our research question. Finally, we used the PROCESS model and found significant mediating effects of elaboration, interface assessment, and issue involvement on perceived value though the model was overall not significant.
\n\n\t![\"Figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/guptasrishti_6834474_100860483_Figure01.JPG\")
\n\tProposed mediation effects from the Process Model
\n\t
\n\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\n\tOne plausible explanation for these findings on interactivity could be related to how interactivity is applied. The study framework was based on Oh & Sundar’s (2015) study on persuasive design and interactivity for smoking cessation messages. Their study operationalized interactivity through two methods: website depth and interaction modality in the form of a slider. Our study similarly used website depth, but we did not directly apply the modality operationalization for our use of the accordion-style text boxes. Both the medium and high interactivity conditions used this feature, but the high interactivity condition combined it with website depth as well. The lack of a consistent trend for perceived interactivity may have been due to inconsistent interface design for interactive features.
\n\n\tFraming seemed to be essentially unsuccessful across the board. While interactivity may have some justification for why perceived interactivity and true interactivity can be difficult to correlate, framing did not capture any significant differences in outcomes for perceived value or other outcomes. Daamgard and Nielsen’s (2018) review concludes that framing needs to be strongly operationalized and detected by the subject to be effective; this experiment may not have supported strong framing effects between groups. This project is consistent with their overall findings that framing tends to have mixed results in educational contexts. Future work could try to identify how to measure the strength of given framing effects. Our study relied on a manipulation check developed by the authors. This method should be tested under conditions with known framing effects before assessing its performance.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tREFERENCES
\n\n\tOh, J., & Sundar, S. S. (2015). How does interactivity persuade? An experimental test of interactivity on cognitive absorption, elaboration, and attitudes. Journal of Communication, 65(2), 213–236. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12147
\n\n\tDamgaard, M. T., & Nielsen, H. S. (2018). Nudging in education. Economics of Education Review, 64(October 2017), 313–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.03.008
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31061" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2019-05-02T17:11:52-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33871, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "dd4c5403-bcf3-4695-b2bb-219e3cd18913", "siteSettingsId": 33871, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21275, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Gaming with Discord: Heuristic Evaluations of Customizable Interface Elements", "slug": "gaming-with-discord-heuristic-evaluations-of-customizable-interface-element", "uri": "medialab/research-article/gaming-with-discord-heuristic-evaluations-of-customizable-interface-element", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:31:25-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:13:38-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33871, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/gaming-with-discord-heuristic-evaluations-of-customizable-interface-element", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/gaming-with-discord-heuristic-evaluations-of-customizable-interface-element", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41758": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Ryan Tan", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41759": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Cheng Chen", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the “Psychology of Communication Technology” course (Comm517).
\n\n\t
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\n\tDiscord is a platform that allows videogame players to customize interface elements for servers they create and join servers created by other users. The decentralization of community-building platform creation necessitates a study of how users evaluate servers created by other users in contrast to those created by industry professionals. This study examines relationships between user evaluations of specific interface elements of the Discord platform and their resulting judgements and behavior.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\n\tRQ1: What is the relationship between the popularity of a server and the presence/absence of key interface elements?
\n\n\tRQ2: What is the relationship between key interface elements and (a) attitudes toward server, (b) server owner, (c) behavioral intention, and (d) gratification?
\n\n\tRQ3: How might individual differences moderate the relationship between key interface elements and attitudinal/behavioral outcomes (a-d)?
\n\n\tRQ4: Why are certain interface elements important for a users’ consideration in joining or leaving a Discord server?
\n\n\t
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\n\tTwo research methods were used in this study: a content analysis and followed by a survey experiment.
\n\n\tContent Analysis. 30 servers were randomly selected from the Discord server pool and they were coded in terms of the presence (how it is presented) or absence of 26 customizable interface elements. Two coders were trained to do the coding. A high inter-coder reliability has been achieved for most of the interface elements. The Krippendorph’s alpha is high, ranging from .77–1.00.
\n\n\tSurvey Experiment. 281 Discord users participated in the survey experiment. They were invited to browse a randomly selected server from the 30 servers we coded, and then expressed (a) the gratifications obtained from the server, (2) their attitudes toward the server and (3) the server owner as well as their (4) behavioral intentions.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\n\tThe following elements were identified in this study as being of key importance in determining positive user evaluations of the server: the presence of welcome/rule pages, voice channels, high numbers of text channels, customized emojis, clear hierarchy in the member list; and the absence of role-restricted channels and role-assignment by emote response. Power-usage and motivations (i.e., gameplay enhancement and recreation) were highlighted a relevant moderator in determining user evaluations and behavior on Discord servers. Qualitative data suggested an additional two heuristics (i.e., activity and rule-identity heuristics) and an individual difference (i.e., type/talk predisposition) that should be considered in future investigations of relationships between interface elements and attitude/behavioral outcome.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\n\tThis study’s focus on interface elements, individual differences, and their relationships with gratification, attitudes, and behavior intention provides insight into the underlying psychological and affective processes that govern user adoption of new platforms. We proposed and validated a model based on our initial findings that we believe will be useful to explain the technological adoption of emerging media platforms. This is particularly relevant to new platforms created under principles of web 2.0, with a focus on user-generated content and participatory culture in technological system presentation.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31068" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2019-05-02T17:02:19-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33865, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "775de6b1-4f4f-4a41-8b47-568b4d1c091a", "siteSettingsId": 33865, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21273, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "“Video is So Cool, It Makes you Warm!”: The Effects of Mediated Priming on Prosocial Behaviors", "slug": "video-is-so-cool-it-makes-you-warm-the-effects-of-mediated-priming-on-proso", "uri": "medialab/research-article/video-is-so-cool-it-makes-you-warm-the-effects-of-mediated-priming-on-proso", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:31:23-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:13:36-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33865, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/video-is-so-cool-it-makes-you-warm-the-effects-of-mediated-priming-on-proso", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/video-is-so-cool-it-makes-you-warm-the-effects-of-mediated-priming-on-proso", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41753": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Meng-Qi Liao", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41754": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Olivia Reed", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the COMM 517 course.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\n\tThe strength and existence of temperature priming on interpersonal warmness have been countered with questionable replication results. In this paper, we provide a new take on Bargh’s classic priming study (2008) by testing the effects of mediated coffee advertisements on subsequent interpersonal judgments. Modality of the content could have influences on priming effects either through changing individual’s perceptual bandwidth (Reeves & Nass, 2000), or through direct triggering of cognitive heuristics (Sundar, 2008). Specifically, temperature priming stimuli with three different modalities (picture, video, animation) were examined in this study.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\n\tH1: Individuals who are exposed to warm drinks stimuli will rate the job candidate as having 1a) a warm personality, be 1b) more likely to recommend the candidate for hire, have 1c) more positive brand attitudes, and have 1d) higher intentions to participate in an additional survey.
\n\n\tH2: Individuals who are exposed to warm drinks in a video or an animation format are more likely to 2a) have more positive attitudes towards the ads brands, 2b) perceive the writer to have warmer personality, 2c) have higher likelihood to recommend the candidate to be hired, and 2d) have higher intentions to participate in an additional survey than people who are exposed to warm drinks in a picture format.
\n\n\tH3: Individuals who are exposed to cold drinks in a video format or an animation format are more likely to 3a) have more negative attitudes towards the ads brands, 3b) perceive the writer to have colder personality, 3c) have less likelihood to recommend the candidate to be hired, 3d) have less intentions to participate in an additional survey than people who are exposed to cold drinks in a picture format.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\n\tA 2x3 between-subjects factorial experiment (n = 219) was conducted to determine the relationship between drink temperature advertised (warm / cold) and modality of the advertisement (picture / video / animation). Students were exposed to one of six advertisements on the loading page before being shown a brief bio of a potential candidate for the university’s newspaper staff. Participants were then instructed to answer a survey which measured impressions of the candidate, attitudes toward the brand in the advertisement, and willingness to participate in another survey.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\n\tThis study did not find main effects of temperature on prosocial thoughts and judgments of others. However, significant effects of temperature priming on brand attitudes were found when moderated by modality. Cold drink ads presented in video format were less likely to result in a negative attitude toward the brand than a cold drink ad presented in a picture format, F (2, 213) = 3.21, p < .05, η2 = .03. Surprisingly, a main effect of modality was found on people’s intention to give the researcher a favor, video ads will lead the participants to be significantly more willing to participate in another survey than a picture ad, regardless of the temperature of the drinks χ2 (2, N = 219) = 6.59, V* = .17, p < .05.
\n\n\tIn addition, Priming effects of temperature on the perceived personality of others and prosocial behaviors were found to be significant when mediated by attitudes toward the brand. Specifically, exposure to cold drinks in picture format, compared to video format, led to more negative attitudes toward the brand which led to interpersonally colder perceptions of the candidate’s personality and lower intentions to recommend the candidate to be hired (See Table 2).
\n\n\t![\"Table](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/liaomengqi_6911249_100815687_Table01.JPG\")
\n\t
\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tIn sum, the findings indicate that the effect of temperature will be mitigated if the modality of the ad is a video. Additionally, advertisements presented in a video format will facilitate prosocial behaviors regardless of the primed temperature.
\n\n\tPossible explanations could be the coolness heuristic triggered when participants are interacting with richer media (Sundar, 2008) that lead them to have more positive impressions towards the media content. Interacting with richer media could also result in more positive affect which would serve as the information sources of participants’ subsequent judgments and behaviors (Schwarz, 2012).
\n\n\tThis study has both important theoretical implications for priming and modality research, as well as practical implications for health communication practitioners, advertisers, and job applicants.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tREFERENCES
\n\n\tReeves, B., & Nass, C. (2000). Perceptual user interfaces: perceptual bandwidth. Communications of the ACM, 43(3), 65–70. https://doi.org/10.1145/330534.330542
\n\n\tSundar, S. S. (2008). The MAIN model: A heuristic approach to understanding technology effects on credibility. In M. Metzger & A. Flanagin (Eds.), Digital media, youth, and credibility (pp. 73-100). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
\n\n\tWilliams, L. E., & Bargh, J. A. (2008). Experiencing physical warmth promotes interpersonal warmth. Science, 322(5901), 606-607. Retrieved from <Go to ISI>://WOS:000260299100048. doi:10.1126/science.1162548
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31061", "31063" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2019-05-02T16:55:12-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33857, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "380b0aec-8208-4f0f-99ab-cf07911329a4", "siteSettingsId": 33857, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21271, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Capitalizing on Clickbait: Identifying the Effects of Listicle Type, Length, and Sponsorship", "slug": "capitalizing-on-clickbait-identifying-the-effects-of-listicle-type-length-a", "uri": "medialab/research-article/capitalizing-on-clickbait-identifying-the-effects-of-listicle-type-length-a", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:31:22-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:13:34-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33857, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/capitalizing-on-clickbait-identifying-the-effects-of-listicle-type-length-a", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/capitalizing-on-clickbait-identifying-the-effects-of-listicle-type-length-a", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41746": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jason Freeman", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41747": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Yiting Chai", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41748": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Christen Buckley", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\t
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\n\tEntire journalistic empires have been built upon sensational headlines designed to elicit consumer attention and provide advertising partners with what they want most, eyeballs on content. The listicle, or article as numbered list, is a popular format for delivering news and information in online spaces and is considered by some to be a form of clickbait. Little empirical research has sought to test the efficacy of various listicle formats on subsequent user evaluations. Thus, to fill this gap, this study proposes the following questions: what are the psychological mechanisms behind a user’s experience with various listicle forms? Are clickable or shorter listicle better received? Does sponsorship of such content matter?
\n\n\t
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\n\tRQ1: Controlling for age, gender, and ethnicity, what are the effects of scrollable and clickable listicles on communicative outcomes?
\n\n\tH1: The longer listicle will lead to greater frustration.
\n\n\t*H2: The clickable listicle (vs. scrollable) will lead to greater perceived ease of use which will in turn positively influence communicative outcomes.
\n\n\t*H3: The clickable listicle (vs. scrollable listicle) will lead to greater frustration which will in turn negatively influence communicative outcomes.
\n\n\tRQ2: Controlling for age, gender, and ethnicity, how do type and length together influence the communicative outcomes?
\n\n\tRQ3: Controlling for age, gender, and ethnicity, when the listicle is sponsored, does the perception of the sponsor moderate the influence of listicle type and length?
\n\n\t*Competing Hypotheses
\n\n\t
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\n\tThis study employed a 2 (listicle type) x 2 (listicle length) x 2 (presence of sponsorship) between-subject factorial experiment using the Qualtrics online survey platform. Participants were randomly assigned to browse one of eight websites representing each of the possible listicle conditions. Once participants had finished reading the assigned listicle, they answered several questions related to their reading experience. Participants were asked to list the thoughts generated while they were reading the listicle, recall the details of the listicle they read with some prompts and answer some recognition multiple-choice questions. Additionally, participants were asked to report their feelings, including their degree of frustration, interest, and how much they enjoyed the reading experience. Participants in the conditions where a sponsor was present were also asked to rate their attitudes toward the sponsor, and rate how much they perceived the sponsor as credible. As a manipulation check, participants were asked to indicate if they were aware of the sponsor, Delta Airlines, prior to reading the listicle. Finally, all the participants rated their attitudes toward the reading experience, the extent to which they thought the listicle was easy to use, and how likely they would be to share this listicle with other people.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\n\tA t-test was performed to answer H1, which predicted that the longer listicle would elicit greater frustration. The t-test revealed a significant relationship between listicle length and frustration such that the longer listicles (M = 3.18, SD = .15) led to more frustration than did the shorter length listicles (M = 2.62, SD = 1.37), t(380) = -3.85, p < .001.To test the hypotheses 2 and 3 and research question 1, we built a structural equation model (SEM) in AMOS
\n\n\t![\"Figure1\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/buckleychristen_6849688_100780814_Figure01.jpg\")
\n\tTo test the indirect effects of listicle type and length on communicative outcomes, bootstrapping procedures using 2000 bootstrap samples and bias-corrected confidence intervals were employed. Results revealed several significant indirect effects of listicle type on communicative outcomes through perceived control. Specifically, the clickable listicle led to more use of pictures in information processing (ß = 01, p = .03), an increase in the number of correct recall (ß = .01, p = .05), a higher score of recognition questions (ß = .02, p = .02), higher level of enjoyment (ß = .02, p = .02), more interest (ß = .02, p = .02), more positive attitude towards the listicle (ß = .03, p = .02), and higher sharing intention (ß = .04, p = .01). However, the indirect effect of listicle type on number of thoughts generated through perceived control was not significant (ß = .00, p = .43). Therefore, hypothesis 2 was partially supported. The indirect effects of listicle type on communicative outcomes, including number of thoughts (ß = .00, p = .97), use of pictures in information processing (ß = .00, p = .95), number of correct recall (ß = .00, p = .96), score of recognition (ß = .00, p = .94), enjoyment (ß = .00, p = .97), interest (ß = .00, p = .97), attitude towards the listicle (ß = .00, p = .97), and sharing intention (ß = .00, p = .97), through frustration were all not significant, therefore, hypothesis 3 was not supported.
\n\n\tResearch question 2 asked the combined effects of listicle type and length. Based on the analyses, it can be concluded that type and length both influence one’s cognition, feelings, and behavioral intentions. Specifically, type of listicle has significant impacts on communicative outcomes through perceived control, but not frustration. To analyze whether the pre-existing evaluations of sponsorship moderates the effects of type and length of listicles on communicative outcomes (RQ3), a MANCOVA test and several regression tests were performed with only the participants in the conditions where the sponsorship was present. No main effects of listicle type or length were found. However, results revealed that the perceived credibility of Delta Airlines significantly predicted how much participants enjoyed reading the listicle (ß = .37, t = 5.43, p <.001), how much they were interested in the listicle (ß = .35, t = 5.01, p < .001), their attitude towards the listicle (ß = .47, t = 7.19, p < .001), and how likely they would be to share this listicle with other people (ß = .32, t = 4.63, p < .001). However, the perceived sponsor credibility did not predict how many thoughts were generated while reading the listicle (ß = .14, t = 1.87, p = .06), how many recognition questions participants correctly answered (ß = .04, t = .60, p = .55), or how many details in the listicle they could recall (ß = .08, t = 1.14, p = .26). To analyze the effects of listicle type and length on whether participants used pictures to assist information processing when sponsorship was present, two chi-square tests were performed, showing no significant influence of listicle type on visual processing.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\n\tThe scale and depth of this study yielded compelling findings that will contribute to future scholarly and industry considerations of listicles. The findings from our study establish that listicle type and length do matter. Perceived control and frustration were also established as important variables through which certain communicative outcomes can be affected. From our findings, we can also infer that clickability is more preferred for listicles and highlight the critical role of modality in online interface design. Perceived credibility of the sponsor overrode the effects of listicle type and length, indicating the importance of considering presence of sponsorship when making design decisions.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31059", "31061", "31066" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2019-05-02T16:48:45-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33849, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "eb574fb9-24b5-4243-987d-8538aff3de0b", "siteSettingsId": 33849, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21269, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Using Dual-Process Theory and Cues of Identifiability to Explain Supportive Exchanges on Social Ques", "slug": "using-dual-process-theory-and-cues-of-identifiability-to-explain-supportive", "uri": "medialab/research-article/using-dual-process-theory-and-cues-of-identifiability-to-explain-supportive", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:31:20-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:13:32-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33849, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/using-dual-process-theory-and-cues-of-identifiability-to-explain-supportive", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/using-dual-process-theory-and-cues-of-identifiability-to-explain-supportive", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41739": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Michelle L. Acevedo Callejas", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41740": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Ashley M. Peterson", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41741": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Michael Broghammer", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the Psychology of Communication Technology course (Comm517).
\n\n\t
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\n\tSocial Q&As are gratifying for users because of opportunities to fulfill information needs and build social relationships, but the mechanisms underlying selection and rating of answers by question askers are understudied. Using dual-process theory of supportive communication (Bodie & Burleson, 2008; Burleson, 2009), this paper examines the role that question asker motivation plays on attention to message features and answer provider cues for response selection and rating. Question asker’s motivation was positively associated with selection of longer, more positive, and more informal responses. Question length mediated the association between motivation and response rating.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\n\tH1: Verbosity of the question asked will be associated with message features of the selected answer, such that question verbosity will be positively associated with a) the length of the selected answer, b) the positivity of the selected answer, c) the sociality, and d) the informality of the selected answer.
\n\n\tH2: There is an association between features of the selected answer and asker rating, such that answers which are a) longer, b) more positive, c) more social, and d) more casual will be rated more highly.
\n\n\tH3: Message features of the selected answer would mediate the association between question verbosity and asker rating, such that the more verbose the question the asker posed, the more highly they would rate the response they selected, because this answer would be a) longer, b) more positive, c) more social, and d) more casual.
\n\n\tH4: For members of the Yahoo! Answers community, there is a positive association between identifiability of the selected answer provider and the asker’s rating of the quality of the answer.
\n\n\tH5: For members of the Yahoo! Answers community, identifiability of the question asker will moderate the association identifiability of the selected answer provider and the asker’s rating of the quality of the answer, such that only when the question asker is more identified, answers of users who are more identified will be rated more highly.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\n\tTo test our hypotheses, we conducted a content analysis of Yahoo! Answers was conducted. Inclusion criteria were: a) question posted at least for four days and b) threads with selected answer and rating of selected answer. In total, 450 questions and selected answers was collected over the period of one month (March 5 through April 5 of 2019). Questions and selected answers were equally sample from: a) business and finance, b) pets, and c) family and relationships. These three topics were chosen to cover a range of levels of subjectivity in questions asked. The three student authors collected the data. We assessed intercoder reliability with a sample of 33 questions and best answers. The independent variables assessed in this study were positive words, social words, and informal words, length of the question, length of the selected answer, identifiability cues of the question asker, and identifiability cues of the selected answer provider. The dependent variable was the question asker’s rating of the selected answer.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\n\tPredictions were partially supported. Specifically, Question verbosity positively predicted selected answer length, positivity, and informality. Also, selected answer length, sociality, and informality positively predicted answer rating. Selected answer length mediated the association between question verbosity and asker rating. Contrary to expectations, answer provider’s identifiability negatively predicted asker ratings. Also, unexpectedly, question asker cues of identifiability did not moderate the association between selected answer provider’s identifiability and asker rating.
\n\n\t
\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tTheoretically, our study extends dual-process theory of supportive communication (Bodie & Burleson, 2008; Burleson, 2009) to social Q&As. Practically, it provides insight to answer providers on these sites about how to offer quality support. More research is needed to disentangle variance on selection and asker rating explained by question asker motivations to attend to message cues from that accounted for by motivation by answer providers to offer more quality support to seemingly motivated users. In both cases, however, results suggest answer providers should generate messages that attend to relational aspects of social Q&As.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31059", "31061" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2018-12-08T21:03:56-05:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33841, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "34bf3b56-71e1-4e84-aede-5ec7e3050071", "siteSettingsId": 33841, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21267, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "‘#nofilter’: Managing boundaries and self-presentations across Finstagram and Instagram", "slug": "nofilter-managing-boundaries-and-self-presentations-across-finstagram-and-i", "uri": "medialab/research-article/nofilter-managing-boundaries-and-self-presentations-across-finstagram-and-i", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:31:19-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:13:29-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33841, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/nofilter-managing-boundaries-and-self-presentations-across-finstagram-and-i", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/nofilter-managing-boundaries-and-self-presentations-across-finstagram-and-i", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41732": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Olivia Reed", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41733": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Ryan Tan", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41734": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Ryan Wang", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the Comm 506 course.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tThis study investigated the relationship between individual differences and impression management behavior across Instagram and Finstagram profiles. In the context of a social media platform that allows users to toggle between alternate social profiles and segment the social groups they interact with, impression management encompasses two strategies: self-presentation and boundary regulation. Individual differences were analyzed in relation to user behaviors and perceptions across both profile types in order to determine how multiple profiles might be employed in order to for users to achieve desired social goals.
\n\t
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tRQ1: What is are the influences of individual differences on behavior across Instagram and Finstagram?
\n\tRQ2: What are the distinctions between user behavior on Instagram and Finstagram?
\n\t
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\tA survey was conducted with a sample of 277 undergraduate students who were rewarded with extra credit. The independent variable of individual differences was operationalized as six retrospectively indexed personality traits including Openness, Extraversion, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, and Narcissism; as well as gender and age. The dependent variable was operationalized as account ownership, frequency of account use, attitude toward Finstagram, and specific Instagram/Finstagram behaviors. Based on the levels of measurement, bivariate analysis, ANOVA, Chi-Squared test, and logistic regression were conducted to test the relationship.
\n\t
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\tGender was found to be significantly related to frequency of using Instagram and Finstagram, ownership of Finstagram account, and general attitude towards Finstagram. Age was found to be significantly related to the ownership and the usage frequency of a Finstagram account. In term of personality traits, Extraversion and Narcissism were found to be significantly related to the frequency of using Instagram. In general Finstagram use, Openness, Agreeableness, Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Narcissism, were found to be significant indicators for the current and future ownership of Finstagram, the frequency of using Finstagram, and also attitude towards using Finstagram.
\n\tWhen investigating specific Instagram/Finstagram behaviors, personality traits play a significant role in predicting differences in user behavior across Instagram and Finstagram accounts. Narcissism was found to strongly correlate with Instagram behavior, while Neuroticism had significant correlations with Finstagram behavior. Additionally, the data indicated that there were strong correlations between Instagram behaviors and Finstagram behaviors, suggesting that there were minimal differences between the two: for example, an individual’s image posting and captioning behavior on Instagram seemed to strongly predict their posting and captioning behavior on Finstagram as well.
\n\n\t
\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tTheoretically, our study extends the literature on multiple profile management and selective self-presentation, specifically with Instagram and Finstagram. Practically, our study contributes to using psychographics as predictors of behaviors, which may be useful in online message targeting. Though we are hesitant to make specific claims about Finstagram and the authenticity of self-presentation it provides due to our content validity measurement issues and our limited sample size, the use of multiple profiles within one platform does seem to allow different aspects of one’s personality to be expressed.
\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the Comm 506 course.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tCollege towns across the U.S. face a daunting challenge in strengthening ties between campus and permanent residents. This study examines placemaking as an opportunity to overcome this division and determine which placemaking initiative could be successful in engaging ephemeral residents, namely college students. Analyzing relationships between level of sense of community, level of needing to belong, and four types of placemaking, we investigate which placemaking intervention is the most desired by college students, their interest in participating in placemaking interventions, and which interventions students feel would be best for the community. This study can assist towns in determining the best return on investment for placemaking initiatives and the best way to engage college students in the local community outside the university.
\n\t
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tRQ1: For college students, what is the relationship between placemaking initiative and interest in participating in placemaking initiatives
\n\tRQ2: What are the moderating influences of sense of community and need to belong, on that relationship?
\n\tH1: College students demonstrate greater interest in participating in certain placemaking types over others.
\n\tH2: College students prefer participating in placemaking scenarios involving interaction with the wider community (e.g. Tactical Placemaking).
\n\tH3: College students who score high on the Sense of Community (SOC) scale will prefer all four placemaking scenarios more than college students who score low on the SOC scale.
\n\tH4: College students who score high on the Need to Belong (NTB) scale will prefer all four placemaking scenarios more than college students who score low on the NTB scale.
\n\t
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\tWe conducted a correlational survey on a convenience sample of undergraduate college students (N = 97) who attend Pennsylvania State University and are residents of State College, PA, a mid-sized college town. Our survey used validated scales to measure levels of moderating variables. We developed a placemaking scale to measure attitudes (our DV) toward four placemaking scenarios (our IV) which represented the four different types of placemaking (standard, strategic, creative, and tactical). [Place Figure01 here] A ranking activity instructed participants to rank scenarios based on which initiative they thought would be best for the city, which one they liked most, which one they disliked most, and which one would most likely make them feel like part of the local community. We ran reliability and correlational tests on all of our variables and found all scales to be reliable and strong correlation of variables. [Place Figure02 here] We then conducted statistical tests on our hypotheses to determine whether or not we had support for our hypotheses.
\n\tRESULTS
\n\tSignificant variation emerged in the types of placemaking scenarios that are preferred by university students in the State College community, as proposed in Hypothesis 1. Tactical placemaking, which offers high levels of interaction between participants, generated significantly more interest than other scenarios, as proposed in Hypothesis 2. We also discovered strong moderating effects for sense of community across the scenarios, as postulated in Hypothesis 3. [Place Figure03 here] The study found no statistically significant relationship between Need to Belong and placemaking scales, indicating that Hypothesis No. 4 was rejected. [Place Figure04 here] A small, but still significant, moderating effect in need to belong in influencing participants’ responses regarding preferences for placemaking, particularly when the scenarios involved higher levels of interaction with others in the community.
\n\t
\n\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tTactical placemaking, being the most interactive of the placemaking types, was most preferred by students and rated as highest in terms of making respondents feel like part of the State College community. However, students rated creative and strategic placemaking as best for the State College community. This is likely due to the more permanent and impactful nature of those initiatives. On the whole, while respondents thought all initiatives to be positive, they had little interest in participating in them. Also, the initiatives on average, did not change their perspective of State College or make them prouder of their community. This is likely either due to the lack of impact of the placemaking interventions or due to the disconnect between campus and town community (the “town-gown” division). This study finds that placemaking interventions are not significant enough to encourage college students to participate in the community outside of the college campus. Future research could tap into college students’ interest in participating in community in non-placemaking based interventions, as well as studying their existing relationship to town community.
\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the Comm 506 course.
\n\n\t
\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tThis study primarily attempts to fill the gap in spiral of silence research by adopting the concept of social media integration and attitude certainty. Spiral of silence provides a useful framework to examine how the public opinion is formed. As one of the most controversial public issues (Bliuc, McGarty, Thomas, Lala, Berndsen & Misajon, 2015), climate change issue was selected to be the context of this study.
\n\t
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\t1) The relationship between perceived opinion climate and willingness to express one’s opinion
\n\tRQ1: For the general population in the US, controlling for gender, ethnicity, and political affiliation, what is the relationship between their perceived opinion climate about the climate change issue (reality) and their willingness to express their opinions towards the issue?
\n\t2) The moderating role of social media integration and attitude certainty in the spiral of silence process on social media
\n\tH1: People’s level of attitude certainty will be a positive predictor of their level of willingness to express opinions about climate change issues.
\n\tH2: The relationship between people’s perceived opinion climate about climate changes issues (reality) and the willingness to express their opinions about climate change issues will be moderated by people’s level of attitude certainty towards climate change issues.
\n\t3) The main effect of social media integration and attitude certainty in the spiral of silence process on social media
\n\tRQ2: For the general population in the US, controlling for gender, ethnicity, and political affiliation, what is the relationship between their level of social media integration and their willingness to express their opinions towards the climate change issue?
\n\tH3: The relationship between people’s perceived opinion climate about climate change issues (reality) and the willingness to express their opinions about climate change issues will be moderated by people’s level of social media integration.
\n\t4) How the opinion climate, social media integration and attitude certainty together influence one’s willingness to express their opinion publicly on social media.
\n\tRQ3: For the general population in the US, controlling for gender, ethnicity, and political affiliation, what is the interaction effect of their perceived opinion climate, level of social media integration, level of attitude certainty on their willingness to express their opinions towards the climate change issue?
\n\t
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\tAn online survey was conducted to test the proposed model with a sample of 296 respondents (after removing the four uncompleted questionnaires from the original 300 participants) recruiting from Amazon Mechanical Turk in November 2018. Detailed demographic information of participants is listed in Table 2.
\n\t![\"Table](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/maggie_nahyun_lola_table1.jpg\")
7-point Likert scales were adopted to measure the dependent variable Willingness to express opinion (α=0.92, M=3.76, SD=1.25), and independent variable Social Media Integration adopted from Jenkins-Guarnieri, Wright and Johnson (2013) (α=0.87, M=4.53, SD=1.14), as well as Attitude Certainty adopted from Petrocelli, Tormala and Rucker (2007) (M= 5.21, SD=1.52). Perceived opinion climate was constructed towards comparing individual opinion toward climate change and perceived opinions of others (friend/family or nation) towards climate.
\n\tA moderated multiple regression analysis for willingness to express one’s opinion on social media was conducted controlling gender, ethnicity, and political affiliation.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\tThe perceived opinion climate was a significant predictor of willingness to express one’s opinion on social media (B=.15, P<0.01). For the relationship between perceived opinion climate and willingness to express one’s opinion on social media, moderating effects of social media integration (B=0.06, P=0.26) and attitude certainty (B=.05, P=0.16) did not appear to be significant. However, regarding willingness to express one’s opinion on social media, social media integration (B=0.61, P<0.01) and attitude certainty (B=1.21, P<0.05) showed a significant main effect, as well as the interacting effect between the two moderating variables (B=-.70, P<0.05) (See Figure 1). Finally, the three-way interaction by perceived opinion climate, social media integration, and attitude certainty was not significant (B=-.03, P=.39). Detailed description of the regression coefficients for the variables is included in Table 4.
\n\t![\"Figure](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/maggie_nahyun_lola_figure1.jpg\")
\n\t![\"Table](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/maggie_nahyun_lola_table2.jpg\")
\n\t
\n\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tThe result supported the theory of spiral of silence confirming the influence of perceived opinion climate on one’s expressive behavior. Social media integration appeared to be the most significant predictor for one’s opinion expression on social media followed by attitude certainty and perceived opinion climate. For those with low attitude certainty, they are less likely to express their opinion on social media than those with high attitude certainty when there’s no social media integration for both groups. Interestingly, however, as social media integration increases, those with low attitude certainty become more vocal and eventually exceed those with high attitude certainty when both groups are highly integrated with social media. The result demonstrates the importance of social media integration in understanding whose opinion is more likely to swirl up to the public opinion.
\n\t
\n\n\tREFERENCES
\n\tBliuc, A., McGarty, C., Thomas, E., Lala, G., Berndsen, M., & Misajon, R. (2015). Public division about climate change rooted in conflicting socio-political identities. Nature Climate Change, 5(3), 226-229. doi:10.1038/NCLIMATE2507
\n\tJenkins-Guarnieri, M. A., Wright, S. L., & Johnson, B. (2013). Development and validation of a social media use integration scale. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 2(1), 38-50. doi:10.1037/a0030277
\n\n\tPetrocelli, J. V., Tormala, Z. L., & Rucker, D. D. (2007). Unpacking attitude certainty: Attitude clarity and attitude correctness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 30-41. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.92.1.30
", "submittedBy": "Eugene Cho", "submittersEmailAddress": "exc75@psu.edu", "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31063", "31077" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2018-12-08T20:36:00-05:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33819, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "6dba5243-285f-403f-a2a9-c0be289962e0", "siteSettingsId": 33819, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21261, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Examining relationships among Instagram affordances, gratifications, and problematic Instagram use:", "slug": "examining-relationships-among-instagram-affordances-gratifications-and-prob", "uri": "medialab/research-article/examining-relationships-among-instagram-affordances-gratifications-and-prob", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:31:13-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:33:34-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33819, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/examining-relationships-among-instagram-affordances-gratifications-and-prob", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/examining-relationships-among-instagram-affordances-gratifications-and-prob", "subtitle": "A technological addiction perspective", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41713": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Cheng Chen", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41714": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Olivia Cohen", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis paper was based on project, as part of the Comm 506 course.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tThe photo sharing platform Instagram is one of the most popular social networking sites among young adults today (Smith & Anderson, 2018). Public and scholarly concerns with addiction-like behaviors have been around since the advent of the Internet, and more recently with social media. Drawing on the technological addiction perspective (Griffiths, 1995), this study examines how technology-related factors (i.e., affordances and gratifications) were related to problematic Instagram use (PIU), as well as the mediating role of gratifications in the relationship between affordances and PIU.
\n\t
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tThe direct relationship between affordance and PIU
\n\tH1a: There will be no direct relationship between the affordance of lurking and PIU.
\n\tH1b: The affordance of broadcasting will be negatively related to PIU.
\n\tH1c: The affordance of community-building will be positively related to PIU.
\n\tThe direct relationship between gratifications and PIU
\n\tH2a: Modality-based gratifications will be positively related to PIU.
\n\tH2b: Agency-based gratifications will be negatively related to PIU.
\n\tH2c: Interactivity-based gratifications will be positively related to PIU.
\n\tH2d: Navigability-based gratifications will be negatively related to PIU.
\n\tThe indirect relationship among affordance, gratifications, and PIU
\n\tH3a: Modality-based gratifications will mediate the relationship between lurking and PIU.
\n\tH3b: Modality-based gratifications will mediate the relationship between broadcasting and PIU.
\n\tH3c: Agency-based gratifications will mediate the relationship between broadcasting and PIU.
\n\tH3d: Interactivity-based gratifications will mediate the relationship between broadcasting and PIU.
\n\tH3e: Navigability-based gratifications will mediate the relationship between lurking and PIU.
\n\tH3f: Navigability-based gratifications will mediate the relationship between community-building and PIU.
\n\t
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\tSurvey data were collected from a large public university in the U.S. by using the convenient sampling method. Participants were recruited from five communication courses. Of the 761 potential participants, 527 successfully completed the survey. Extra credit points were awarded to students whose course instructor agreed to provide this incentive. In the data-cleaning process, largely incomplete responses (n = 14) and non-Instagram users (n = 20) were excluded from the dataset. Thus, a sample of 493 Instagram users were used for data analysis.
\n\t
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\tResults from multiple hierarchical regression showed that the affordance of broadcasting (B = .34, SE = .08, p ＜ .001) and community-building (B = .16, SE = .08, p ＜ .05) were positively related to PIU, whereas there is no direct relationship between lurking and PIU. Thus, H1a and H1c were supported, but H1c was rejected.
\n\tMoreover, PIU was positively related to interactivity-based (B = .08, SE = .04, p ＜ .05) and agency-based gratifications (B = .08, SE = .04, p ＜ .05), but was negatively related to navigability-related gratifications (B = .17, SE = .04, p ＜ .001). Surprisingly, there is no relationship between agency-based gratifications and PIU. Thus, the results support H2a, H2c, and H2d, while rejecting H2b.
\n\n\tRegarding the mediation analysis, results from PROCESS macro Model 4 showed that modality-based gratifications positively mediated the relationship between lurking and PIU (B = .08, SE = .02, 95% CI [.04, .12] as well as the relationship between broadcasting and PIU ((B = .06, SE = .02, 95% CI [.01, .11]. Similarly, interactivity-based gratifications also positively mediate the relationship between broadcasting and PIU (B = .03, SE = .02, 95% CI [.00, .06]. In contrast navigability-based gratifications mitigate the effect on lurking on PIU (B = -.07, SE = .02, 95% CI [-.11, -.03]. However, no mediating relationship was found between broadcasting, agency-based gratifications, and PIU as well as community-building, navigability-based gratifications, and PIU. Therefore, H3a, H3b, H3d, and H3e were supported, but H3c and H3f were rejected.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tBased on the monothetic screening criteria, 25.10% of participants are diagnosed with PIU. Risk factors for PIU are affordances of broadcasting (i.e., features for self-expression) and community-building (i.e., features for social connection) as well as modality-based and interactivity-based gratifications. By conceptualizing PIU as a technological addiction, we argue that technology is not neutral in the development of unhealthy social media use. Instead, some technological affordances have high addictive potentials, such as broadcasting and community-building. The mediating role of gratifications points out the condition of developing PIU when engaging with Instagram affordances. By contrast, if the perceived navigability-based gratifications are more robust, they are less likely to have PIU. Therefore, app developers can reduce problematic social media use by encouraging users to look around and explore new features on Instagram.
\n\tThis paper was based on a project, as part of the Comm 506 course.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tWith over 2 billion monthly users, Facebook is the world’s most popular social networking platform. However, at the same time as Facebook surpasses key milestones and posts record profits, there is an emerging discourse about our dependence on the social networking site. While there is a significant body of literature on Facebook use, relatively little scholarly attention has been paid to who is disengaging and why. The purpose of this study is to fill a gap in the literature by examining the role of personality and motivation along the continuum of use and non-use.
\n\t
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tFor the general population, controlling for age, gender, and education, what is the relationship between user personality traits and motivations and continued Facebook use?
\n\tH1: Individuals with higher levels of (a) narcissism and (b) agreeableness will be less likely to discontinue their Facebook use.
\n\tH2: Individuals with higher levels of (a) narcissism and (b) agreeableness will be less likely to think about discontinuing their Facebook use.
\n\tH3: Individuals with higher conscientiousness will be more likely to discontinue Facebook use.
\n\tH4: Individuals with higher conscientiousness will be more likely to think about discontinuing Facebook use.
\n\t
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\tSeveral established personality measures, including the Big Five Inventory and Narcissism scales and Facebook usage behaviors were assessed using a survey. Facebook use was operationalized on three levels: currently having an account, recent or past deactivation, and thoughts of deactivation. The survey was administered through Amazon Mechanical Turk and the total sample size was 221 respondents.
\n\t
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\tAgreeableness was shown to play a significant role across all measured levels of usage, in favor of maintaining a Facebook account. Those with higher levels of conscientiousness and high self-esteem were each individually associated with remaining on Facebook. Individuals who are more prone to downward social comparison were significantly less likely to think of quitting Facebook. Higher levels of narcissism and neuroticism were each individually associated with Facebook deactivation, whereas low self-esteem and high neuroticism were associated with thoughts of quitting. Openness, extraversion, privacy, and self-monitoring were not significantly associated with any of the dependent usage variables.
\n\t“Place table 2, table 3, and table 4, here.”
\n\t
\n\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tMany of our results ran counter to previous research, however, this is likely due to the evolving nature of Facebook use and the growing number of other social media options. We speculate that those high in narcissism are likely leaving Facebook in favor of more self-oriented platforms, such as Snapchat and Instagram. Highly conscientious users likely view Facebook as a way to stay informed, share news, and voice opinions; congruent with Facebook’s current environment. High agreeableness was the strongest predictor of Facebook use. This likely stems from a motivation to maintain positive relationships, making them more adaptable to Facebook’s changing social climate.
\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the “COMM 506” course.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tNudging theory has been found to significantly influence decision-making and behavior in offline contexts, and more recently in online contexts, including cybersecurity. Although common knowledge states creating new and complex passwords is a proactive cybersecurity behavior, most password-protected account holders manage their passwords poorly, reusing the same passwords that often contain personal information (Gaw & Felten, 2006). This study examines nudging theory in the context of password management practices by comparing the effects of five nudges (incentive, norms, default, salience, and ego) on password management attitudes and behavior. These nudges were based on previously defined nudge parameters (Blumenthal-Barby & Burroughs, 2012).
\n\t
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tH1: There will be differences between the types of nudges and comfort level with keeping an auto-generated password.
\n\tH2: There will be differences between the types of nudges and behavior of changing password.
\n\tMETHOD
\n\tA between-subjects experiment was conducted in Qualtrics with five nudge conditions (incentives, norms, defaults, salience, and ego) plus one control condition. The experiment’s cover story required participants to undergo a mock online registration process for a new retail website. Participants provided a username for the site and received an auto-generated password for their site account. Then, they were randomly assigned to one of five nudge conditions that encouraged them to create their own password. Participants indicated their a) comfort level with keeping the auto-generated password, and b) whether they wanted to create their own password now, later, or not at all. Participants then completed a questionnaire measuring the following individual-level covariates: password changing habits, number of password protected accounts, number of compromised accounts, and Internet trust.
\n\t
\n\tRESULTS
\n\n\tTo test H1, a one-way ANOVA and a one-way ANCOVA were conducted to examine the effects of different types of nudges on participants’ comfort levels with the auto-generated password. Results show that the salience nudge significantly decreases the comfort level with keeping the auto-generated password, thus supporting H1. An ANCOVA revealed that even after controlling for covariates, the salience nudge still significantly reduces comfort level with keeping the auto-generated password. To test H2, a Chi-square test of independence was conducted between types of nudges and the behavior of changing passwords. This test did not reveal significant differences.
\n\tAdditional analyses show that the number of accounts compromised is positively related to password changing habits and negatively correlated with Internet trust. The lower level of Internet trust, the more often participants change passwords for their online accounts. Further, younger individuals were more comfortable with keeping the auto-generated password. Age and Internet trust were moderately positively related, indicating older participants had higher levels of Internet trust.
\n\t
\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tThis study sought to examine the relationship between different types of nudges and cybersecurity behavior, operationalized as password management attitudes (i.e., comfort level with keeping an auto-generated password) and behavior (i.e., creating a new password). The salience nudge was the only nudge that significantly influenced comfort level with keeping an auto-generated password, and no nudges significantly affected creating a new password. According to nudging theory, a single nudge could induce multiple psychological effects that influence decision-making (Thaler & Sunstein, 2009). The implications of this finding build upon the current understanding of the psychological effects of nudging, specifically affect and salience nudges, and supports the progress towards a better defined typology of nudges. This finding helps to contextualize nudging effectiveness in cybersecurity behavior and also has implications for practical nudge implementation, like privacy cues on social media.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31061" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2018-03-20T13:51:51-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33797, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "5e10c397-4eb8-49b9-9749-34b967bca3ae", "siteSettingsId": 33797, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21255, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Understanding the relationship between leadership and diversity in CSR:", "slug": "understanding-the-relationship-between-leadership-and-diversity-in-csr", "uri": "medialab/research-article/understanding-the-relationship-between-leadership-and-diversity-in-csr", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:31:09-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:13:17-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33797, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/understanding-the-relationship-between-leadership-and-diversity-in-csr", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/understanding-the-relationship-between-leadership-and-diversity-in-csr", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41694": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Erica Hilton", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41695": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Julia Gessner", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the \"COMM 506: Research Methods in Communications\" course.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\n\tCorporate social responsibility (CSR) performance ratings now include diversity as a measure of success. Research has found that there is a correlation between diversity characteristics of boards of directors and CSR performance. A content analysis was conducted to determine if this correlation exists between the proportion of nonwhite and female executive leadership in STEM companies, a field known for its lack of diversity in workforce and education, and CSR reporting of these companies.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION
\n\n\tFor companies in the STEM fields, what is the relationship between diversity characteristics of leaders and the diversity characteristics in their corporate social responsibility (CSR) reporting?
\n\n\t
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\n\tA content analysis was conducted of CSR reports (n=104) of Fortune 500 companies and executive (non-board) leadership pages of company websites of the telecommunications, technology, engineering & construction, aerospace & defense, chemical, energy, and health care sectors. The reports were reviewed for the frequency of mentions of terms related to race/ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic class. Leadership webpages of company websites were reviewed for the number of white/nonwhite leaders and for the number male/female of leaders. Companies without reports or without leadership webpages were excluded because of the inability to collect a complete data set for those companies.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\n\tFindings suggested that a higher proportion of females in executive leadership positions at a company predicted an increased number of mentions of females in corporate social responsibility reports, and a higher proportion of nonwhite individuals in executive leadership positions at a company predicted an increased number of mentions of nonwhite terms in corporate social responsibility reports(see Table 1, Relationship between female leaders and females in CSR reports and nonwhite leaders and nonwhite mentions in CSR reports). Other findings indicated that a higher proportion of females in leadership positions also positively predicted the number of unspecified diversity terms, and an increased proportion of nonwhite leaders predicted an increased frequency of mentions of socioeconomic terms and unspecified diversity terms in corporate social responsibility reports (see Table 2, Gender and Race impact on Socioeconomic and Unspecified).
\n\n\t
\n\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\n\tThe proportion of diverse executive leaders at a STEM company may predict the frequency of mentions related to gender, socioeconomic class, and race/ethnicity in CSR reports. CSR reports from companies with a higher proportion of female leaders had a higher number of female and unspecified diverse terms. Companies with a higher proportion of nonwhite leaders had more mentions of terms related to socioeconomic class, nonwhite terms, and unspecified diversity characteristics. Therefore, this increase of mentions may lead to a higher CSR performance ranking. These results are consistent with past research on the Upper Echelon theoretical framework when applied to boards of directors. Future research should be completed to understand the role of executive leaders in impacting other diversity initiatives.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31077" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2018-03-20T13:41:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33789, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "c77416e0-0bc9-44ba-bf78-0e1933dfcfd2", "siteSettingsId": 33789, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21253, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Gender matters?", "slug": "gender-matters", "uri": "medialab/research-article/gender-matters", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:31:07-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:34:10-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33789, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/gender-matters", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/gender-matters", "subtitle": "The effects of instructor gender on perceptions of do-it-yourself-tutorials", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41687": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Yiting Chai", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41688": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Weng Ee Then", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41689": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Stephanie Winkler", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the COM506 course.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tDo-it-yourself culture started gaining significant prominence in the mid-2000s as to the Internet became the new normal. The culture surrounding do-it-yourself can be identity enhancing for the individual as well as empowering as they learn to perform tasks that originally would have be reserved for a professional. While this culture can be empowering it has the potential to perpetuate gender stereotypes since previous research has shown that individuals perceive instructors as more credible when their gender is consistent with the perceived gender of the task. In addition, tutorials with consistency between the perceived gender of the task and the gender of the instructor could be seen as more useful than tutorials without this consistency.
\n\t
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tRQ1: For the general population, controlling for age and education level, what is the relationship between the types of gender cues in the DIY tutorial and perceived credibility of the instructor?
\n\tRQ2: For the general population, controlling for age and education level, what is the relationship between the types of gender cues in the DIY tutorial and perceived usefulness of the tutorial?
\n\tH1a: Participants will perceive the female instructor as more credible when the tutorial theme is more feminine.
\n\tH1b: Participants will perceive the male instructor as more credible when the tutorial theme is more masculine.
\n\tH2a: Participants will perceive the tutorial with the female instructor as more useful when the tutorial theme is more feminine.
\n\tH2b: Participants will perceive the tutorial with male instructor as more useful when the tutorial theme is more masculine.
\n\tH3a: Participants who watch the no gender cues tutorials are more likely to perceive the instructor of the masculine task as a male compared to the feminine task.
\n\tH3b: Participants who watch the no gender cues tutorials are more likely to perceive the instructor of the feminine task as a female compared to the masculine task.
\n\t
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\tA 2 (tutorial theme) x 3 (gender cue) between-subject experimental design was conducted on Amazon Mechanical Turk. Participants were randomly assigned to watch 1 of 6 tutorial conditions. The six conditions were: 1) hard-drive replacement tutorial theme with no gender cue, 2) hard-drive replacement tutorial theme with male gender cue, 3) hard-drive replacement tutorial theme with female gender cue, 4) knitting tutorial theme with no gender cue, 5) knitting tutorial theme with male gender cue, and 6) knitting tutorial theme with female gender cue. Once the participants finished watching the tutorial condition, they were then directed to complete a questionnaire measuring perceived credibility of the instructor and perceived usefulness of the tutorial.
\n\t
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\tA factorial ANOVA was conducted to examine hypotheses 1 and 2. Neither hypothesis was not supported. A Chi-square was conducted to analyze hypothesis 3 and the result was significant for the hard-drive condition (χ2 = 4.09, df = 2, p < .12) and knitting condition (χ2 = 4.09, df = 2, p < .12). Hypothesis 3 was supported. In addition, participants viewed the tutorials with no gender cues as less credible and less useful than the tutorials with gender cues. There was a main effect regarding gender cues and credibility of the instructor. We further examined this to see if this result was due to the gender cues, or due to the modality of the tutorial. After conducting a two-tailed t-test, the result was significant (t = 2.27, df = 72, p < .02).
\n\t
\n\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\n\tWe found that participants had a gender stereotype in place for both of the content types used in the study (H3). However, it appears that even though these stereotypes were present, they did not impact the credibility of the instructor or the perceived usefulness of the tutorial (H1 & H2). The lack of support of our first two hypothesis (H1 & H2), while still having support for our third (H3), could be explained by the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM). Participants who watched the stimuli containing no gender cues most likely processed the information through the peripheral route. However, those that watched the stimuli with a gender cue processed the information through the central route, which allowed them to bypass the gender stereotypes. In addition, the significant result on the modality of the tutorial can be explained using media richness theory. Since the video tutorials with gender cues would be considered a richer medium, they are more suited towards instruction of unfamiliar material.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31059", "31061" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2017-08-21T19:10:16-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33781, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "67de8fda-69f2-4d27-9af2-7a91aa1618a5", "siteSettingsId": 33781, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21251, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Self Representative Behaviors Among Instagram Users and their Effect of the Nature of Posts", "slug": "self-representative-behaviors-among-instagram-users-and-their-effect-of-the", "uri": "medialab/research-article/self-representative-behaviors-among-instagram-users-and-their-effect-of-the", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:31:06-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:13:13-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33781, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/self-representative-behaviors-among-instagram-users-and-their-effect-of-the", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/self-representative-behaviors-among-instagram-users-and-their-effect-of-the", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41680": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Weng Ee Then", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41681": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jamie Shortsleeve", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41682": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Natalie Perdue", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the “COMM 418” course.
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tSocial media have given Internet users a platform for self-expression. The social media platform, Instagram (IG), allows users to capture, edit, and publish photos directly to their personal page. The purpose of this study is to further understand the relationship between the amount of followers a user holds and their posting behaviors. As we study this relationship we consider the role social desirability and personality may play in our results. Past research has evaluated the uses and gratifications of social media use, although few have studied differences among the users themselves. Our purpose is to go a step further to understand how self-representation and editing posting behaviors vary among users.
\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tRQ: For IG users, controlling for extroversion and introversion, what is the relationship between number of IG followers and the nature of their posts?
\n\tH1: IG users with higher number of followers will edit their photos more often than IG users with a lower number of followers.
\n\tH2: IG users with higher number of followers will result in more self-representation in their posts than IG users with a lower number of followers.
\n\tH3: IG users with higher number of followers will result in more positive self-presentation in their posts than IG users with a lower number of followers.
\n\tH4: IG users with lower number of followers will result in more honest self-presentation in their posts than IG users with a higher number of followers.
\n\tH5: IG users who have honest self-presentation will edit posts less.
\n\tH6: IG users who have positive self-presentation will edit posts more.
\n\tH7: The relationship between number of IG followers and edits of post is mediated by self-presentation.
\n\tH8: Extrovert IG users will edit post more often than introvert IG users.
\n\tH9: Extrovert IG users will post more self-representative photos than introvert IG users.
\n\tMETHOD
\n\tParticipants were a convenience sample. They were asked questions, in an online survey conducted using Qualtrics, dealing with number of Instagram follower they have, posting habits on Instagram and various personality questions. The independent variable was number of followers. The mediating variable was honest vs. positive self-presentation. The dependent variable was edits of posts and tone of posts. We also controlled for a person’s level of extroversion.
\n\tRESULTS
\n\tH1: partially supported
\n\tH2: not supported
\n\tH3: partially supported
\n\tH4: partially supported
\n\tH5: not supported
\n\tH6: partially supported
\n\tH7: partially supported
\n\tH8: not supported
\n\tH9: not supported
\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\n\t
\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/thenwengee_6643626_82847046_Figure01.png\")
\n\t
\n\n\tH1 leant support to uses and gratification theory. We believe that people may have edited their posts more because it reinforced positive emotions and gave them social gratification. H3 and H4 aligned with self presentation theory, showing that the more followers a person had on Instagram the more they seemed to be concerned with other people’s perception of them perception. Therefore, resulting in their posts showing positive self-presentation. In regards to H6 and H7, we found that people who show positive self-presentation will edit their posts more and this is regardless of how many followers the person had. H2, H5, H8 and H9 were not supported.
\n\n\t
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31063", "31075" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2017-08-21T19:06:57-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33771, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "1932bee4-f9ce-4867-be1c-8a801d1edfef", "siteSettingsId": 33771, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21249, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Fake News Stories from Credible and Non-Credible News Organizations", "slug": "fake-news-stories-from-credible-and-non-credible-news-organizations", "uri": "medialab/research-article/fake-news-stories-from-credible-and-non-credible-news-organizations", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:31:04-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:13:10-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33771, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/fake-news-stories-from-credible-and-non-credible-news-organizations", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/fake-news-stories-from-credible-and-non-credible-news-organizations", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41671": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Gleeson Smith", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41672": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Erin Ragan", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41673": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jason Salinas", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41674": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Megan Hughes", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis project was based on a work in COMM 418.
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\n\tWith the advent of online news and social media, it has been increasingly more difficult to discern between real and fake news. The Internet is a game changer for the distribution of misinformation, as it has become increasingly more difficult to quell the spread of fake news stories in such a connected online sphere. This study aimed to test how credible the public perceived a fake news story to be, based on the news source and social media platform they were exposed to.
\n\tPrior research has expanded upon how the nature of the Internet lends itself to being the perfect vehicle for fake news, due to the “fast paced stream” of information that constantly is being updated (Zubiga, Ji p.162, 2013). Scholars have researched that particularly online, messages will be processed peripherally unless people are highly involved with the content (Phi Delta Kappan, 2017). A 2013 study found that authority cues also distract people from diligently fact checking, because people are so influenced by the perceived prestige of the source that they don’t give thought to the possibility of deception (Lee & Sundar, 2013). Another way people are swayed by sources is when it is in opposition or agreement with their political beliefs. Meirick and Bessarabova (2016) conducted research focusing on selective exposure and political affiliation, and found that both parties were equally likely to believe fake news that aligned with their beliefs (Meirick & Bessarabova, 2016). One last piece of research we focused on found that people with higher levels of education had better memory of news than those with lower levels of education (Grabe, Kamhawi, & Yegiyan, 2009). Their research work lends credence to education having a factor in processing media in different ways.
\n\tResearch Questions/Hypotheses
\n\tResearch Question: For United States residents, what is the relationship between fake news, credibility, and trustworthiness among The New York Times and The National Enquirer?
\n\tH1: Highly educated people will be more likely to fact check articles.
\n\tH2: Republicans will not trust New York Times as much as other political viewpoints.
\n\tH3: People that have lower trust of articles will fact check more often
\n\tH4: The New York Times will be viewed as a more credible and trustworthy source compared to The National Enquirer.
\n\tMethod
\n\tA 2 condition (The New York Times vs. The National Enquirer) online survey was conducted to test the research questions and hypotheses. Participants (n=98) were divided into two conditions and exposed to the same fake news story on the Twitter and Facebook page of the news outlet they were randomly assigned to. After, the participants took part in a questionnaire which had a total of 47 questions including a 16 item 11-point scale of adjectives that was used to determine the credibility and trustworthiness of articles, and an 8 item 11-point adjective scale that was used to determine newsworthiness. This scale was adapted and shortened from the original 31-item scale created by Alyssa Appelman and Shyam Sundar (Appelman & Sundar 2014).
\n\tRESULTS
\n\tIn summation, the results of the various tests gave interesting insights. Though the first hypothesis was not supported, it provided evidence that highly educated people are actually less likely to fact check articles than people with lower levels of education. The second hypothesis found a significant relationship between political affiliation and source trust. Republicans were both more likely to trust The National Enquirer and less likely to trust The New York Times than Democrats. The third hypothesis was also significant, and supported the idea that people with lower trust of articles are more likely to fact check. Lastly, our fourth hypothesis showed a significant finding that The New York Times was viewed as more credible and trustworthy than The National Enquirer.
\n\tCONCLUSION
\n\tSome of the results of this study align with the findings of past research. The authority heuristic (Lee & Sundar, 2013) predicted that people were more likely to be influenced by source prestige, and indeed our participants viewed the The New York Times was more credible and trustworthy than The National Enquirer. Our result that Republicans were both more likely to trust The National Enquirer and less likely to trust The New York Times than Democrats supported Meirick and Beassarabova’s (2013) findings that people seek news that reinforces their personal beliefs, and gives a sense of cognitive consistency. These researcher’s work may also provide evidence as to why we found that people with lower trust of articles were more likely to fact check. It is possible that people who read articles that are not consistent with their personal beliefs are more likely to fact check what they perceive as untrustworthy. However, our finding that highly educated people are less likely to fact check articles than people with lower levels of education was in opposition with the findings of Grabe, Kamhawi, and Yegiyan’s prior research.
\n\tThese results highlight the importance of encouraging media literacy skills in this day and age. It is of paramount importance that citizens are educated enough to discern fact from fiction.
\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the COMM 418 course.
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tWith the rapid increase in users and traffic, many studies have been done on social media and its role in society. Although a wide variety of variables have been looked at, one thing appears consistent - social media’s impact on its users is extremely powerful. In order to dive deeper into the impact that social networking has on one’s frame of mind, our research study focuses on the three social media outlets that college students use most: Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. Our study analyzes how college students’ use of social networking on these sites affects their temporary state of mind.
\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tRQ1: For college students, controlling for gender and age, what is the relationship between the number of friends/followers on social media platform and mood management?
\n\tRQ2: For college students, controlling for gender and age, what is the relationship between the number of followers on social media platform and satisfaction?
\n\tRQ3: For college students, controlling for gender and age, what is the relationship between the number of followers on social media platform and envy/jealousy?
\n\tRQ4: For college students, controlling for gender and age, what is the relationship between the number of followers on social media platform and lifestyle surveillance?
\n\tMETHOD
\n\tWe created an online survey using Google Forms and distributed it to undergraduate college students using a convenience sample. The sample consisted of 74 participants from ages 18-27. Of the participants 64.9% were female 35.1% were male. The average participant had 831 Instagram followers, 351 Twitter followers, and 1223 Facebook friends. The survey consisted of 10 questions and asked questions regarding demographics, the amount of time spent on social media, the amount of friends or followers they had on the social media platforms, and lastly, questions based on how social media affected their temporary state of mind. The independent variable was the amount of followers or friends on social media platform. Participants were asked to record the number of followers or friends they had from Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter. The dependent variables were the temporary effects that social media had on the participant’s states of mind. The temporary effects included change in mood, jealousy or envy, yearn to change lifestyle, and overall satisfaction. Each variable was measured using multiple choice questions that were answered based on the Likert scale.
\n\t
\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/matatovveronica_6643521_82910273_Figure1.png\")
\n\tFigure 1. Sample Question
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\tOur results suggest that the number of followers or friends on social media do not have a strong effect on one’s temporary mood. Although RQ1 and RQ2 had significant relationships present in regards to number of friends on Facebook and mood and number of followers on Instagram and satisfaction, the overall relationship was not strong due to their r’s being so low (RQ1: r =.0005, RQ2: r = .0004). Apart from those results, RQ3 and RQ4 displayed that, based on the data analyzed, there is no relationship between jealousy and envy or urge to change one’s lifestyle and number of followers or friends on social media platforms.
\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/matatovveronica_6643521_82910274_Figure2a.png\")
\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/matatovveronica_6643521_82910275_Figure2b.png\")
\n\tFigure 2. RQ1 Graph, RQ1 Results
\n\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/matatovveronica_6643521_82910276_Figure3a.png\")
\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/matatovveronica_6643521_82910279_Figure3b.png\")
\n\tFigure 3. RQ2 Graph, RQ2 Results
\n\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/matatovveronica_6643521_82910282_Figure4a.png\")
\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/matatovveronica_6643521_82910283_Figure4b.png\")
\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/matatovveronica_6643521_82910284_Figure4c.png\")
\n\t
\n\n\tFigure 4. RQ3 Graph, RQ3 Results
\n\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/matatovveronica_6643521_82910285_Figure5a.png\")
\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/matatovveronica_6643521_82910286_Figure5b.png\")
\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/matatovveronica_6643521_82910287_Figure5c.png\")
\n\tFigure 5. RQ4 Graph, RQ4 Result
\n\n\tCONCLUSION/DISCUSSIONS
\n\n\tWe have concluded that number of friends on Facebook effects mood because Facebook creates intensified relationships through extensive content/media sharing. We attributed the relationship between Instagram and satisfaction to the “likes” people get from their followers which creates a great deal of validation, and subsequently a greater amount of satisfaction. As for the lack of relationship between number of friends/followers and jealousy/lifestyle surveillance, it is possible that the quality of friends/followers is more important than the quantity. Additionally, we have discovered that women are more active on social media because they tend to be more socially expressive, which translates into greater social media use.
\n\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/matatovveronica_6643521_82910288_Figure6a.png\")
\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/matatovveronica_6643521_82910290_Figure6b.png\")
\n\tFigure 6. Female Social Media Use Graph
\n\n\tThroughout our research, we applied the theories of social exchange and social comparison. We have proposed that the practical implications of our study could apply to revising Facebook’s process for reporting negative/inappropriate content. We believe our research would also be of use to media buyers, who would benefit from knowing that college-aged females use social media more than males. We identified our limitations as a disproportionate gender sample (mostly females), self-reporting bias, and a small and unvaried sample demographic. For future research we would like to recreate the study using a more diverse sample, including adults, adolescents and people of different backgrounds. We would also be interested to understanding and testing the long-term effects that social media has on one’s state of mind.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31063" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2017-08-21T18:50:21-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33757, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "f9ec78f0-98fc-47ae-a509-bffb32f7fdfd", "siteSettingsId": 33757, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21245, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Bandwagon Cues and Perceived Attitudes", "slug": "bandwagon-cues-and-perceived-attitudes", "uri": "medialab/research-article/bandwagon-cues-and-perceived-attitudes", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:31:01-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:13:07-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33757, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/bandwagon-cues-and-perceived-attitudes", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/bandwagon-cues-and-perceived-attitudes", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41659": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Alyssa Massari", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41660": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Brooke Landon", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the “Comm 418: Media Effects” course.
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tSocial media plays a large role in today’s society. Various aspects of a social media page present viewers with cues that influence the way they perceive that page and how they form their attitudes regarding the company, group, or person that page represents. While there are various cues that contribute to a viewer's perceived attitude, this research will specifically focus on the bandwagon cue in the form of Instagram followers and how it influences the perceived attitudes of viewers.
\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tRQ: For college students, controlling for age and gender, what is the relationship between the bandwagon cue and their perceived attitude toward the company?
\n\tH1: Stimulus in the high bandwagon condition will be perceived as more credible.
\n\tH2: The high bandwagon condition will elicit positive affect.
\n\tH3: The high bandwagon condition will create perceptions of higher quality.
\n\tMETHOD
\n\tConvenience sampling and a questionnaire were used to answer the research question and hypotheses. Standardized scales from Spears & Singh (2004) were used to assess authority cues, while credibility cues were assessed through both standardized and semantic differential scales. Participants were given no compensation for their participation in the study. Participants were randomly assigned to either the high or low stimulus condition, which were manipulated through the use of Adobe Photoshop. No incentive was given for participation in the study. A total of 79 undergraduate students at The Pennsylvania State University, between the ages of 18 and 23 years (M =20.91, SD =1.81), took part in an online survey. 75 out of the 79 participants completed the entire survey, therefore only data collected from the 75 participants were used. Participants were recruited through email and Facebook with a direct link to the questionnaire.
\n\tRESULTS
\n\tThe means and standard deviations shown in the chart indicate that participants in the high bandwagon condition felt the page was more credible by answering questions in relation to likeability, popularity, trustworthiness, and relevance.
\n\tOnce we established item-total reliability using the statistical software JMP, we were then able to run t-tests to better interpret the data for our questions regarding higher credibility, positive affect, and higher quality. For the first test on credibility, we found that people in the high bandwagon condition liked the page significantly more than those in the low bandwagon condition (t= 3.913, p= .0002).
\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/massarialyssa_6624149_82895001_Figure01-1.jpg\")
In Figure 2. there are similar results for the index of affect measures. We found that the high bandwagon condition elicited more positive affect in participants who viewed that stimulus. The results show a t-value of 3.243, and a p-value of 0.0018.
\n\t ![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/massarialyssa_6624149_82895002_Figure02-1.jpg\")
\n\tFinally, in Figure 3., the t-test results show significance of the high bandwagon condition creating perceptions of higher quality of the page (t= 3.587, p= 0.0006).
\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/massarialyssa_6624149_82895003_Figure03-1.jpg\")
\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/massarialyssa_6624149_82895004_Figure04-1.jpg\")
\n\tPresented in Figure 4., you will see the regression results returned to be very significant (RSq =0.77, p < .0001).
\n\n\tWe believe this data shows the understanding that because of a mediator, the bandwagon cue is facilitated.
\n\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tDue to the results of our data collection, we were successfully able to support all three of our hypotheses. Although we cannot say for sure, we can hypothesize a few explanations for additional mediators. In the high condition, participants saw a large number of followers and thus thought the company must be well-established and well-networked in order to have such an extensive fan base. Networking involves making positive impressions and connections to other companies or individuals. If the research involved a different demographic, we may expect to see different results for the fact that the information might be more likely to be processed systematically due to higher involvement in the actual product.
\n\tThis paper was based on a project as a part of the COMM 418 Media Effects course.
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tThe purpose of this study is to investigate whether or not different interface cues on fake news content affects how that content is perceived by readers. In recent years, the concept of fake news has become an increasingly popular topic and issue among news media. Fake news is skewing perceptions and beliefs to the point where people don’t know what is credible information and what isn’t. Bandwagon effects increase how much fake news affects us by claiming that the content is credible and truthful just because other people believe it is, too, when that isn’t necessarily the case.
\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tFor the general population, what is the relationship between the amount of cues (bandwagon and advertisements) and believability/credibility of content, distraction, attention and intention to share.
\n\tRQ1: The amount of cues will influence perceived message believability
\n\tRQ2: The amount of cues will influence perceived message credibility
\n\tRQ3: The amount of ads will influence the degree of attention paid to the article
\n\tRQ4: The amount of cues will influence the intention to share the article
\n\tRQ5: Individual reading habits will influence their perceptions of credibility and intention to share the article
\n\tRQ6: Individual fact-checking behavior will influence their perceptions of credibility and intention to share
\n\tH1: When an article has more ads people will be more distracted
\n\tH2: When more people share/like the article people will perceive the content of the article as more credible
\n\tMETHOD
\n\tAn experimental study was used to test the relationship between the amount of cues (bandwagon or advertisements), and the readers perceived believability/credibility, attention, distraction and intention to share. Convenience sampling was used along with Amazon Mechanical Turk to recruit participants to take part in the study, and acquired a total of 66 participants. Participants were offered the option of taking the survey on a mobile device or online. Participants were sent questionnaire which included three stimuli given at random. The participants could complete the survey at their choice of time and location. The participants were relocated to the survey which was made on Qualtrics. Once they began they received their stimuli in one of the conditions at random and they were given a variety of questions about the article pertaining to their condition. The same fake news article was given out in each condition. The High condition had numerous amount of advertisements and high bandwagon cues places throughout the article.
\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/dedeokatelyn_6641010_82910544_High01.jpg\")
\n\t
\n\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/dedeokatelyn_6641010_82910545_Hig02.jpg\")
\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/dedeokatelyn_6641010_82910547_High03.jpg\")
\n\tThe medium condition only had a few advertisements and low bandwagon cues.
\n\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/dedeokatelyn_6641010_82910548_Med01.jpg\")
\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/dedeokatelyn_6641010_82910549_Med02.jpg\")
\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/dedeokatelyn_6641010_82910550_Med03.jpg\")
\n\tThe low condition had no new advertisements added just the one that was always present on the article with no bandwagon cues.
\n\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/dedeokatelyn_6641010_82910552_Low01.jpg\")
\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/dedeokatelyn_6641010_82910554_Low02.jpg\")
\n\t![\"figure\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/dedeokatelyn_6641010_82910555_Low03.jpg\")
\n\tRESULTS
\n\n\tRQ1 was intended to test the believability of the fake news article with the number of interface cues given to the reader. We predicted that there would be an influence derived from the interface cues that would change the reader’s perceived believability of the article. RQ2 followed the same pattern, predicting that the number of interface cues would influence the reader’s perceived credibility of the article. By use of a one-way ANOVA, we were unable to support these research questions. With the smooshed measures for message credibility that included both believability and credibility measures, all three conditions predicted no significant effect. With a p-value of 0.1353, we found that the interface cues had little to no influence on the believability and credibility of the fake news article. However, the medium condition did have more influence than the high and low condition. Therefore, we predict that if we had more participants in our study, the medium condition could potentially show significant results.
\n\tRQ3 predicted that the number of advertisements would influence the degree of attention paid to the article. With the p-value of 0.0248, this showed significance thus supporting our research question three. We can predict from these results that when an article has many ads the reader is less likely to lose attention on the article than with minimal ads. An article with no ads is evidently not going to influence the reader’s attention off the article.
\n\tRQ4 predicted that the number of interface cues given to participants would influence their behavioral intention to share the article. We used questions specifically asking participants if they would share this article on social media, share it with their close friends and family and if they would share it with a colleague or acquaintance. These questions were smooshed and represent BI Share GM on the graph. Based on our results (P-value of 0.4473), there showed no significant predictor that the number of advertisements and bandwagon cues would influence the reader’s behavioral intention to share the article. Therefore, research question four was not supported.
\n\tRQ5 predicted that the particular reading habits of participants would influence their perceived credibility and intention to share. The results that we found were significant. People who read more articles on social media than non-social media websites were more inclined to share this article. This yielded a p-value of 0.0115. RQ5 was supported.
\n\tRQ6 analyzed individual fact checking behavior and if this had an influence in the source credibility and behavior intention to share. Source credibility had a p-value of 0.0200 and behavioral intention had a p-value of 0.0176. This shows a significant relationship between people's reading habits and perceived credibility and intention to share. RQ6 was supported.
\n\tH1 predicted that the more advertisements an article has, the more the reader will become distracted. this was not significant, with a p-value of 0.2262. We asked participants various questions about distraction, and ran an additional analysis just asking if the ads distracted them. This was also not significant with a p-value of 0.5521. H1 was not supported.
\n\tH2 predicted that when more people shared/liked the article, the fake news article will be perceived as more credible. People in the medium condition felt the article was more believable after being exposed to a medium number of bandwagon likes/shares. The low and high conditions didn’t yield a significant relationship. With a p-value of 0.0508, H2 was not supported.
\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tEven though our findings indicated that perceived message believability/credibility and intention to share isn’t influenced by the number of cues, we found separately they do have significance. Overall, the number of advertisements do matter on an article. From our findings, we found that with many advertisements (high condition) placed on an article, the reader blocks out the ads suggesting there could be a cognitive overload. However, when the article has minimal ads that are not so obtrusive, the reader tends to notice the advertisements more. This study found that even though participants’ attention was more grabbed in the medium condition, they were not distracted with more advertisements. More advertisements in our article showed that it does not have a strong relationship with distraction. Another finding that we didn’t predict was the difference in reading habits of our participants and the relationship it had with their perceived credibility and intention to share our fake news article. One potential explanation for this is that social media readers are more likely to heuristically process reading articles through social media than through traditional websites. Additionally, social media contains click bait and instant article traffic that continuously feeds users articles to read. Therefore, there is less processing of credibility, which could lead to more of an intention to share if the article is of interest to the reader. This explanation also helps us understand why people who don’t fact check and believe those articles are more willing to share the article and believe in its source credibility.
\n\tThis project was done based on COMM 517 course.
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\n\t3D virtual reality (VR) technology has long promised to provide new ways to view and interact with abstract data, but it has been held back by technological limitations a well as the difficulty of moving through 3D environments. Navigation, or viewpoint interaction, has been a continuing challenge for 3D visualization. Recent innovations in VR technology overcome previous limitations in terms of responsiveness, fidelity, and other aspect. However existing research has had mixed results on the most effective viewpoint interaction techniques.
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\n\tIn a virtual environment, does being able to physically walk around a 3D scatterplot result in increased understanding of the scatterplot compared to standing still, and moving the scatterplot with an input device?
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\tA between-subjects (N = 20) experiment comparing two viewpoint interaction types conditions in a 3D graph understanding experiment. Specifically, users encountered a series of five scatterplots within a head-mounted display VR system and answered a series of questions about the scatterplots designed to measure their memory and understanding. In the first condition, participants were able to walk around a 3D scatterplot embedded in a VR environment, their virtual viewpoint being matched to their physical location and look direction by the system. In the second condition, users are immersed in the same VR environment, but do not move. Instead, they used a controller to rotate and move the scatterplot in order to view it from different sides.
\n\t
\n\tRESULTS
\n\tNo significant differences were found between conditions, likely due to the small sample size of our study, but exploratory ANOVAs revealed interactions between graph reading ability, mental rotation ability, and condition.
\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tAn exploratory analysis revealed that individual differences played a strong role depending on the condition. In particular, low spatial ability users were better supported by walking interaction rather than interaction using a controller. This has implications for the design of virtual reality data visualization systems, as technology for walking interaction are generally more costly.
\n\tThis project was done based on COMM 517 course.
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\n\tRecent studies (e.g., Kang & Sundar, 2016; Oh & Sundar, 2015) revealed that simply changing media features can have an impact on persuasive outcomes of health-related content; however, the question remains as to whether and how interactivity can enhance the persuasiveness of specific message types, such as fear appeals.
\n\n\tWe proposed that certain interactivity affordances may function to increase persuasion by enhancing fear arousal and suppressing psychological reactance. The interactivity effects model (Sundar, 2007) argues that the proximal outcomes (e.g., perceived contingency) of interactivity can contribute to user engagement. Users that are more involved in the content are potentially more subject to the influence of emotional appeals (Slater & Rouner, 2002), meaning that they may experience a higher level of fear arousal. In addition, some types of interactivity affordances indicate more action possibilities and system responsiveness (Oh & Sundar, 2015; Sundar, Bellur, Oh, Jia, & Kim, 2016), which likely renders a sense of control. Perceived control elicited by website interactivity may counteract perceived threat to freedom provoked by fear appeals and the suppression of perceived threat to freedom can lead to more promising persuasive outcomes.
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tH1: Modality interactivity → Interface assessment → Absorption → Fear → Persuasion
\n\tH2: Message interactivity → Perceived contingency → Absorption → Fear → Persuasion
\n\tH3: Source interactivity → Agency enhancement → Absorption → Fear → Persuasion
\n\tH4: Message interactivity → Perceived contingency →Perceived control → Perceived threat to freedom (Reactance) →Persuasion
\n\tH5: Source interactivity→ Agency enhancement →Perceived control → Perceived threat to freedom (Reactance) → Persuasion
\n\tMETHOD
\n\n\tA 2 (modality interactivity: presence vs. absence) × 2 (message interactivity: presence vs. absence) × 2 (source interactivity: presence vs. absence) fully factorial, between-subjects experiment was utilized to test the hypotheses. Participants (N = 272) were randomly assigned to one of the conditions (i.e., to browse one of the websites with fear-based persuasive content) and asked to answer questions regarding their perceptions of the website as well as their intention of compliance.
\n\n\t![\"figure1\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/penglulu_6778786_83037487_Figure01.png\")
\n\tFigure 1. Modality interactivity: the absence condition (a) and the presence condition (b).
\n\n\t![\"figure2\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/penglulu_6778786_83037488_Figure02.png\")
\n\tFigure 2. Message interactivity: the absence condition (left) and the presence condition (right).
\n\n\t![\"figure](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/penglulu_6778786_83037489_Figure03.png\")
\n\tFigure 3. Source interactivity: the presence condition (Share on Social Media (top) and Leave Comments (bottom)).
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\n\tH2-H5 were supported; H1 was not supported. We did not find a significant effect of modality interactivity (manipulated as a gallery) on interface assessment. Message interactivity (layered content and breadcumbs) promoted perceived contingency, which led to more cognitive absorption in the site, resulting in more fear arousal, hence more persuasion. Perceived contingency also suppressed perceived threat to freedom (a proxy for psychological reactance) prompted by the content through perceived control of the interface, resulting in more intention of compliance. Furthermore, source interactivity (sharing and commenting functions) promoted perceived agency, which led to more user engagement (i.e., cognitive absorption), resulting in more fear arousal, hence more intention to follow the advocated behavior. The enhanced agency also led to more perceived control of the interface, which suppressed perceived threat to freedom prompted by the content, resulting in more intention of compliance.
\n\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\n\tPerceived control and cognitive absorption were identified as the key mediators that bridged the effects of medium and content: perceived control generated by interactivity affordances could reduce perceived threat to freedom evoked by the persuasive content; engagement with the site could increase fear arousal as a way to influence persuasion.
\n\n\tThis study suggests the potential to mitigate unintended message effects with medium-related strategies by revealing a relation between perceived control and threat to freedom. Campaign designers who use websites as information dissemination channels and aim to suppress reactance are advised to seek ways to enhance perceived control such that the counterproductive perceptions or behaviors associated with reactance are reduced. In addition, given that the level of fear arousal might differ depending on to what extent an individual was absorbed in the site, health campaign designers that focus on fear appeals and seek to use a web-based channel may look into ways to promote absorption as a means to instigate more fear arousal.
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\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tThe current investigation aims to shed light on how message modality and topic affect attitude towards content and the ability to retain pertinent information. The innumerable forms in which political information is delivered raises concerns over the efficacy of the various modalities being employed. It is well acknowledged by many research industries such as Pew that Americans are more politically polarized than ever before. However, beyond just measures of general ideology, a well-established trait in those with strong party identity is that of attitude preservation. Attitude preservation is characterized as the opposition to counter-attitudinal messages through selective processing and lowered motivated reasoning (Redlawsk, 2002). Prior research has shown that two of the most critical factors contributing to significantly reduced preservation behavior are useful information (Hart et al., 2009) and an abundance of information (Redlawsk et al., 2010). This research suggests that the ability to retain information from political messages is critical to promoting cross-cutting behavior.
\n\tIn addition to this severe political polarization, it is important to consider the ways in which media perceptions are affected. According to a Pew study, liberals and conservatives perceive the news with stark differences in trust levels (Mitchell et al., 2014). Due to these differences between the two parties, trust and related constructs such as perceived credibility may play a significant role in preferred news consumption.
\n\tAnother concern in need of addressing in the complicated relationship between political news consumption, modality, political ideology, perceived credibility, and attitude, is the increasing amount of political information to sift through, is the possibility of information overload. The Limited Capacity Model of Mediated Message Processing (LC4MP) assumes that information processors have a fixed amount of cognitive resources, and that media richness and higher levels of multimodality exacerbate this issue. However, with the ubiquitous nature of information technology, power users have emerged for whom media is highly familiar. Research has shown that power users are notably more efficient and innovative in their usage of media devices (Zhong, 2013) and significantly prefer higher levels of interactivity and customization (Sundar & Marathe, 2010). Despite the established relevance of power usage as a factor in media usage studies, it remains underexplored within the context of political messages.
\n\tIn light of the contemporary surge in political information and the concerns surrounding its consumption, the present study reviews research on topics surrounding political messages in media, before reporting the results of empirical tests of hypotheses derived from this review.
\n\tRESEARCH QUESTIONS/HYPOTHESES
\n\tFor the general population, what is the relationship between modality, topic, and power usage, on cued and free recall, and attitude toward political news stories?
\n\tH1: As the complexity of modality increases (text to audio to video), there will be a significantly positive relationship with perceived source and message credibility.
\n\tH2: Cognitive elaboration will significantly mediate the relationship between modality and attitude.
\n\tH3a: Higher levels of message modality will be positively related to Cued Recall.
\n\tH3b: Higher levels of message modality will be negatively related to Free Recall.
\n\tH4a: Power Usage will positively moderate the effects of video modality on memory, and negatively moderate the effects of text modality on memory.
\n\tH4b: Power usage will significantly moderate the relationship between topic and attitude.
\n\t
\n\tMETHOD
\n\tA 3 (Modality: text versus audio versus video) x 2 (Topic: Immigration versus Healthcare) factorial, between-subjects experimental questionnaire was conducted. Participants were randomly categorized into one of the three modalities (text, audio, and video) and one of the two topics (Immigration and Healthcare). Participants answered pre-stimulus questions that measured the dependent variables, and then were asked to read, listen, or watch a news story about either Immigration or Healthcare. After the stimulus, participants answered questions investigating their memory of the content and other independent, mediating, and moderating variables.
\n\t
\n\tRESULTS
\n\tH1. Our findings showed that as complexity of modality increased (text to audio to video), participants perceived the stimuli with more message and source credibility.
\n\tH2.
\n\tH3a. Modality was found to have a significant relationship with cued recall, particularly in the video condition were there significantly higher memory scores compared to audio; the text condition was not significantly different than either conditions.
\n\tH3b. Two three-way interactions demonstrated the interaction between Topic, Modality (text and audio), Involvement on Free Recall. However this interaction differed by Topic. For the Immigration condition, video and audio held a positive relationship, and text a negative. The inverse was true for healthcare, text held a positive relationship and video and audio was a negative relationship. Overall, Topic had a significant relationship with Free Recall, a positive one with Immigration and negative relationship with Healthcare.
\n\tH4a. This hypothesis was not supported.
\n\tH4b. Power Usage had a significant relationship with Value Judgment, Message Credibility, and Source Credibility.
\n\t
\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tOf particular note is the three-way interaction identified between Topic, Modality, and Power Usage on Cued Recall. The collected data revealed a significant relationship between power usage and cued recall, such that for the immigration topic, the video condition resulted in significantly higher recall, while the text condition lowered recall. More interesting yet is that the second topic -- healthcare reform -- showed an inverse relationship with modality on cued recall. In comparing the two video conditions (the base form of the stimuli), we can see that there were previously unnoticed differences between the two. The video for the immigration topic was notably more visually active, including a series of cuts to different speakers, visual representations of the legislative process, maps of the U.S., a change in speaker, and more to read on screen. This suggests that as power usage increases, individuals benefit from more visually rich information and a higher rate of encoding, whereas a text-only stimuli does not adequately engage the four dimensions of power usage, likely that of expertise and behavior. Conversely, the healthcare video is much less visually rich, and is narrated by a single individual with the only supplementary content being a bulleted list of policy reforms. This supports our earlier interpretation that power users benefit from information presented in appropriate forms, as the simpler and more direct text-based delivery of such straightforward information would satisfy the power user’s need for efficiency.
\n\tBased on existing literature, we hypothesized that as the complexity of modality increased, there would be a significant increase in perceived message and source credibility. Our results suggest that the most valued modality is video, and that audio and text are less likely to gain traction in political contexts, where credibility and trust are critical elements of information seeking behavior (Rieh & Hilligoss, 2008). Similarly, we investigated the role of trust in the processing of political messages, and found that it significantly moderated both factors of our attitude measure (evaluative trust and value judgments) as well as message and source credibility. The relationship to credibility and attitude can be summarized as the increasingly important role of trust in the media in the face of a constantly shifting landscape of news content and punditry. The interaction effect is an unexpected but impactful finding, which suggests that due to the impersonal nature of text compared to an individual’s voice, there is a significant difference in the evaluative trust attitude factor.
\n\tAnother important finding regarding the factors contributing to information-seeking behavior and news content selection is that of power usage. Power usage was found to be significantly related to both the evaluative trust factor of attitude, as well as on message and source credibility. This is likely due to the fact that power users are logically more evaluative and expertise-driven in their information technology usage.
\n\tThe relationships identified between topic and modality on free recall were largely in line with theory drawn from prior literature, which suggests that when message content is incongruous with modality, there will be lower levels of attitude but higher levels of free recall.
\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\n\tThe use of virtual assistants (VAs) is rapidly spreading, with VA technologies expected to lead a market of $12 billion by 2024 (Baron, 2017). However, despite efforts to build more efficient VAs, the adherence rate and actual usage level remain low (Santos-Perez, Gonzalez-Parada, & Cano-Garcia, 2013). One of the main reasons for this is the lack of emotional and human-like elements in these technologies. However, there is a gap in literature regarding the modality effects on human-likeness and user perception in interactions with VAs primarily designed around voice-recognition. This is particularly important considering that today’s most popular VAs including Apple’s Siri, Microsoft’s Cortana, Amazon’s Alexa, and Google Home are agents primarily designed to interact with users based on audio input. In the present study, we explored the potential of modality interactivity, operationalized as the exchange of voice/text input and output, to improve user experience through affording more human-like interactions. Specifically, we focused on three factors as different dimensions of human-like characteristics – anthropomorphism (referred to as human-likeness throughout the study), perceptual bandwidth, and social presence, and their mediating role on attitudes toward the VA system. In addition to modality difference, we also tested how device and task differences could have interactions with modality, considering that many VA systems offer several device options (e.g., mobile phone, laptop) and contextual settings (e.g., informational use, entertainment) that could also affect user perceptions. Finally, as another potential mediator that could have an impact on attitudes toward the VA system, the perceived level of intrusiveness was examined.
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tH1: Voice interaction, compared to text interaction, will elicit higher levels of perceived (a) human-likeness, (b) social presence, and (c) perceptual bandwidth.
\n\tH2: Voice interaction, compared to text interaction, will indirectly increase positive attitudes toward system, mediated by the levels of (a) human-likeness, (b) social presence, and (c) perceptual bandwidth.
\n\n\tRQ1: Will mobile interaction, compared to laptop interaction, moderate the relationship between voice (vs. text) interaction and the levels of (a) social presence, (b) humanness, (c) perceptual bandwidth?
\n\n\tRQ2: Will task difference (hedonic vs. utilitarian) moderate the relationship between voice (vs. text) and the level of (a) social presence, (b) humanness, (c) perceptual bandwidth?
\n\n\tRQ3: What is the relationship between modality (voice vs. text), device (computer vs. mobile), and task difference (hedonic vs utilitarian) on the perceived level of intrusiveness of the interaction with the virtual assistant?
\n\n\tRQ4: Will modality, device, and task difference have an indirect effect on attitudes toward the system mediated by perceptions of intrusiveness?
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\tThis study was conducted based on a 2 (modality: voice vs. text) X 2 (device: mobile vs. laptop) X 2 (task type: hedonic vs. utilitarian) mixed factorial experimental design, with modality and device serving as between-subject factors, and type of task, a within-subject factor. In addition, a VA named Cortana, developed by Microsoft, was used to examine our research questions, due to its inherent characteristics that allow users to interact with the system using both voice and text input, and also mobile and computer devices. Eighty-four undergraduate students came to a computer lab to participate in this study (Male, N= 12; Female, N=72), who were randomly assigned to one of four conditions (mobile voice, N = 21; mobile text, N = 22; laptop voice, N = 20; laptop text, N = 21). They were then asked to interact with Cortana involving two different type of task sets (hedonic vs. utilitarian) for five minutes each, with the order for two task types being randomized. After each five-minute interaction for each task set, participants were directed to a desktop PC next to their seat to complete an online questionnaire to evaluate their interactions.
\n\tRESULTS
\n\tThe results partially supported H1 in that interacting with voice (vs. text) significantly increased social presence and perceptual bandwidth. However, the modality effect failed to reach significance for human-likeness. When we examined the moderating effects of device (RQ1), no significant interaction effects appeared for human-likeness and social presence, with a marginally significant effect on perceptual bandwidth showing that voice (vs. text) interaction tended to elevate perceptual bandwidth, only in the laptop (vs. mobile) condition. In addition, the task difference (hedonic vs. utilitarian) moderated the modality effects on social presence, with no significant moderation effects on human-likeness nor perceptual bandwidth (RQ2). In particular, voice (vs. text) interaction enhanced the feeling of social presence, but only with utilitarian (vs. hedonic) tasks. No significant main effects from modality on perceived intrusiveness emerged, with all the possible 2-way or 3-way interaction terms between the three independent variables also failing to show significant effects on intrusiveness (RQ3-4). In terms of the mediation (H2), only in the utilitarian (vs. hedonic) task condition, voice (vs. text) interaction was mediated by higher level of perceived human-likeness and social presence to evoke more positive attitudes toward Cortana. In addition, the hypothesized mediation effects of perceptual bandwidth only received support in utilitarian (vs. hedonic) condition when people used laptops (vs. mobile).
\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tVoice was mediated by perception of human-like characteristics to induce positive attitudes toward Cortana, but only in the utilitarian condition. This might be explained by the fact that voice as an input is associated with higher efficiency while higher efficiency is a more salient goal in utilitarian tasks. In addition, for laptop VA, voice matters. When the laptop “speaks,” novelty effects possibly brings about more positive user reactions. Our study indicates that the modality in virtual assistant interactions will make a difference on the human-likeness features of VAs; moreover, it can even function differently with device type and task contexts taken further into consideration.
\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the COMM 506 course.
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tCrisis can happen to any business in the world. It is defined as a significant threat to companies that can result in negative consequences if not handled properly. In crisis situations, does a company’s corporate credibility prior to crisis affect consumers’ perceptions? Does it matter for companies to communicate transparently with their people? The current study attempts to examine these two concepts in crisis situations, and assess their relative impact on consumers’ attitude toward the company and their purchase intentions. In addition, the study explores the moderator role of type of company in these relationships.
\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\n\tH1: In a crisis context, participants who read the high corporate credibility description will lead to having (a) positive attitude toward the company and (b) higher purchase intentions than those who read the low corporate credibility description.
\n\tH2: In a crisis context, participants who read the description of a company's high communicative transparency in crisis will lead to having (a) positive attitude toward the company and (b) higher purchase intentions than those who read the description of a company's low communicative transparency.
\n\tH3: Within organizations, there is an interaction between corporate credibility and communicative transparency in crises on attitude toward the company and purchase intentions, such that companies with high corporate credibility and high communicative transparency receive (a) more positive attitude toward the company and (b) higher purchase intentions.
\n\tFor U.S. population, controlling for age and gender,
\n\tRQ1: How does the type of company moderate the relationship between corporate credibility and consumers’ attitude toward the company and purchase intentions in a crisis situation?
\n\tRQ2: How does the type of company moderate the relationship between communicative transparency and consumers’ attitude toward the company and purchase intentions in a crisis situation?
\n\tRQ3: How does the type of company moderate the relationship between the interaction of corporate credibility and communicative transparency and consumers’ attitude toward the company and purchase intentions in a crisis situation?
\n\tMETHOD
\n\tA 2 (types of company: yogurt company vs. airline company) x 2 (corporate credibility: high vs. low) x 2 (communicative transparency: low vs. high) between-subjects factorial experiment was conducted. A total of 160 Amazon Mechanical Turkers participated in the study.
\n\tRESULTS
\n\tH1 is supported. The study ran a factorial ANOVA and found that, the corporate credibility effect was significant for attitude toward the company, F (1, 152) = 46.35, p < .0001. The main effect for corporate credibility on purchase intentions is also significant, F (1, 152) = 46.05, p < .0001.
\n\tH2 is supported. There was a significant main effect for communicative transparency on attitude toward the company (F (1, 152) = 63.17, p < .0001). The main effect for communicative transparency on purchase intentions was significant (F (1, 152) = 42.77, p < .0001).
\n\n\tH3 is partly supported. There is no significant interaction for the effect of corporate credibility and communicative transparency on attitude toward the company (p = 0.29). However, the interaction effect for corporate credibility and communicative transparency on purchase intentions approached acceptable levels of statistical significance, F (1, 152) = 3.82, p = 0.05.
\n\n\tFor RQ1, 2, and 3, the interaction effect of company type and communicative transparency occurred on purchase intentions, F (1, 152) = 6.27, p = 0.01.
\n\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tIn crisis situations, a company’s corporate credibility is positively correlated with consumer publics’ attitude toward the company and their purchase intentions (H1). Companies’ efforts to communicate transparently had a positive effect on consumers’ attitude toward the company and their purchase intentions (H2). These results extend prior studies to crisis contexts. In addition, the result showed that companies with high corporate credibility and high communicative transparency lead to having higher purchase intentions than those with bad reputation and low communicative transparency (H3b). However, the interaction effect of these two variables failed to occur on participants’ attitude toward the company (H3a). The results, to some degree, contradicts with the arguments from Ajzen’s (1985) Theory of Planned Behavior, which predicts that behavior intentions are formed, in part, from attitudes. One possibility could be the indirect correlation between attitude toward a company and purchase intention. Last, using the two different company types, i.e. yogurt manufacturer versus airline, the study found that the yogurt company with low communicative transparency in a crisis context elicited a lower purchase intention than the airline company with low communicative transparency. The unexpected interaction finding could be explained either by participants’ closer identification with yogurt consumption than airline travel, or the type of crisis described in the stimulus with food contamination as more relatable than the plane crash.
\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the COMM 506: Research Methods in Communications course.
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tThe inclusive nature of social media, such as Twitter, enables crisis response personnel and civilians to leverage these platforms for sharing and viewing relevant, real-time, and on the ground information in times of crisis or emergency. However, a lack of information gatekeeping processes leads to information overload, as well as concerns about both content and source credibility. As a means to both assess source credibility and account for contextual relevance in a crisis situation, the concept of brokerage, borrowed from the domain of social network analysis, is considered in this study.
\n\t
\n\tBrokers are entities who have organically emerged as hubs of information within a network. Their network placement, as well as their ability to effectively distribute information (or resources) translates into some level of perceived credibility by others in the network. In situations where source credibility must be estimated, but traditional metrics for measuring such are either inapplicable or inappropriate, it is hypothesized that metrics of brokerage might inform perceptions of source credibility.
\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tRQ1: For recipients of crisis-related tweets, controlling for Twitter familiarity, dispositional trust, and twitter metric awareness, what is the relationship between broker metrics and perceived source credibility?
\n\tH1: Sources who, on average, use a low number of hashtags in tweets will be perceived as more credible.
\n\tH2: Sources who have high a follower to followee ratio will be perceived as more credible.
\n\tH3: Sources who have high a tweet to retweet ratio will be perceived as more credible.
\n\tRQ2: For recipients of crisis-related tweets, controlling for Twitter familiarity, dispositional trust, and twitter metric awareness, what is the relationship between broker metrics and behavioral intentions?
\n\tMETHOD
\n\tA 2 (avg # hashtags: high vs. low) x 2 (tweet/retweet ratio: high vs. low) x 2 (follower/following ratio: high vs. low) x 3 (control for message content) between-subjects experiment was conducted using an online survey in Qualtrics to test the research questions and hypotheses. The recruited participants (N = 199) were presented with a uniform scenario outlining a hypothetical in which they were residents of a fictional town called Samajar and just encountered tweets relating to an earthquake in their region. After the scenario, each participant was randomly shown one of thirty-two different stimuli. Then, all participants were asked the same questions about behavioral intention and perceived source credibility associated with the stimuli, as well as general questions related to topics of twitter familiarity, dispositional trust, twitter metric awareness, and basic demographics.
\n\tAll stimuli (images of fake tweets) shared the same layout, profile icon, username and handle, and number of hashtags (two) used in the tweet. The standard Twitter message metrics (likes, retweets) stripped away and replaced with our three broker metrics (average number of hashtags used by the source, tweet to retweet ratio, and follower to followee ratio). We opted to use visual representations (bar graphs) for the two ratios, instead of numerical values. We had thirty-two different stimuli—every combination of the three metrics, plus four different message contents for each combination, to control for message content. Figure 1 shows an example with content 1 with all broker metrics in the high category. Figure 2 shows an example with content 1 with all broker metrics in the low category.
\n\n\t![\"figure](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/weirmansamantha_6651393_80279206_Figure01.jpg\")
\n\tFigure 1: Stimulus with content 1, high HT, high FF, high TRT
\n\n\t![\"figure](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/weirmansamantha_6651393_80279207_Figure02.jpg\")
\n\tFigure 2: Stimulus with content 1, low HT, low FF, low TRT
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\tThe findings indicate that follower/followee ratio in conjunction with hashtag usage approached a significant effect on perceived source credibility. In addition, both twitter awareness metrics and dispositional trust played an important role in determining behavioral intentions and perceived source credibility.
\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tWithin this study we attempted to leverage heuristic metrics of Twitter messages in a way that would allow data such as average number of hashtags, follower/followee, and tweet/retweet ratios to be displayed upfront for use of the message consumer. We then proceeded to examine how these metrics affected behavioral intentions and how they would influence perceived credibility of the source.
\n\tTwitter metrics were found to be a significant indicator of perceived credibility. This finding suggests that in order for our metrics and perceived credibility to be significant, the participants must understand what the metrics are and how they are used within the twitter platform. Likewise, dispositional trust approached significance indicating that those who are more likely to trust found messages more credible. Our theory is that those with a low dispositional trust would be less likely to trust twitter metrics, regardless of how valid an indication those metrics might be.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31063", "31066", "31077" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2017-08-21T18:18:08-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33705, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "a7f6cd58-1549-4e8a-8212-c70ea3a2b74e", "siteSettingsId": 33705, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21231, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Tell Me More: The Effects of Mobile Screen Size on Self-disclosure", "slug": "tell-me-more-the-effects-of-mobile-screen-size-on-self-disclosure", "uri": "medialab/research-article/tell-me-more-the-effects-of-mobile-screen-size-on-self-disclosure", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:50-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:12:50-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33705, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/tell-me-more-the-effects-of-mobile-screen-size-on-self-disclosure", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/tell-me-more-the-effects-of-mobile-screen-size-on-self-disclosure", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41609": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Bikalpa Neupane", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41610": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Eugene Cho", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41611": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jinping Wang", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis paper was based on a project required for the fulfillment of COMM 506, fall 2016 final project.
\n\t
\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tA between-subject quasi-experiment with two levels of screen size (small vs. large) was conducted to investigate how the difference in screen sizes could affect the level of self-disclosure in two types of sensitive information (i.e., health and transactional information) when using mobile devices. We tested the mediation effects of perceived intimacy, perceived feeling of being watched, and trustworthiness. In addition, we observed that the level of mobile power usage moderated the relationship between screen size and self-disclosure.
\n\t
\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tRQ: For mobile device users, controlling for their privacy concern and presence of others, what is the relationship between the screen size and the level of self-disclosure?
\n\tRQ1: How will the level of mobile power usage moderate the effects of screen size on (a) health and (b) transactional information disclosure?
\n\tHypotheses:
\n\tH1a: Using a small (vs. large) screen size is more likely to elicit higher level of self-disclosure on sensitive health information.
\n\tH1b: Using a small (vs. large) screen size is more likely to elicit higher level of self-disclosure on sensitive transactional information.
\n\n\tH2: The relationship between the screen size and disclosure of (a) health and (b) transactional information will be positively mediated by perceived intimacy
\n\n\tH3: The relationship between the screen size and disclosure of (a) health and (b) transactional information will be positively mediated by perceived trustworthiness
\n\n\tH4: The relationship between the screen size and disclosure of (a) health and (b) transactional information will be negatively mediated by perceived feeling of being watched.
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\tA between-subject quasi-experiment with two level of screen size (small vs. large) was conducted. Among a total of 227 participants (79 men, 148 women; 145 smartphones, 82 tablets), 114 were undergraduates (102 smartphones, 12 tablets), and 113 were MTurkers (43 smartphones, 70 tablets). Participants received a survey link through email or text with specific instructions to use their tablets or smartphones device to answer the questionnaire.
\n\t
\n\tRESULTS
\n\tAs predicted, findings suggested that being exposed to a small (vs. large) screen elicited more disclosure related to health information. However, no corresponding effects appeared with transactional information disclosure. In addition, the level of mobile power usage moderated the relationship between screen size and self-disclosure, in that only among low power users, using larger screen size tended to inhibit health information disclosure, whereas, such association did not appear significant among medium and high power users.
\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tThe results support the idea that screen size could exert significant effect on people’s self-disclosure. However, the relationship of the effect pertains to the nature of the topic and the context of information sharing. In terms of health information disclosure, users tend to disclose more on smaller screens, while screen sizes seemed to have no effects on promoting users’ comforts of sharing highly personal and sensitive information for practical and transactional purposes.
\n\tUnfortunately, none of the potential mediators suggested in the study appeared to show significant influence, failing to identify the reason behind why the screen size of mobile devices hinder or facilitate the level of self-disclosure.
\n\n\tAnother interesting finding from the study relates to the significant moderating effects of the level of power usage. Especially, the amount of self-disclosure stayed comparatively high regardless of the screen size among medium and high power users. However, large screen size tended to inhibit disclosure among low power users. This seems to reflect the nature of power users who are considered as more likely to be early adopters of new mobile devices and systems (Zhong, 2016), thus leaving them comfortable sharing information notwithstanding the device difference (smartphone vs. tablet).
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31077" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2017-08-21T18:14:09-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33699, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "0594df90-cd16-4d23-9403-1cf23723b497", "siteSettingsId": 33699, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21229, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The role of Internet memes in creating a sense of belonging and community in an online setting", "slug": "the-role-of-internet-memes-in-creating-a-sense-of-belonging-and-community-i", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-role-of-internet-memes-in-creating-a-sense-of-belonging-and-community-i", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:49-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:12:48-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33699, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-role-of-internet-memes-in-creating-a-sense-of-belonging-and-community-i", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-role-of-internet-memes-in-creating-a-sense-of-belonging-and-community-i", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41604": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Maria Molina", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41605": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sara Erlichman", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\t This paper was based on a project as part of the \"506 - Research Methods\" course.
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tSocial media has seen an increased use of Internet memes and almost every savvy Internet user has been in contact with a Internet meme or has shared one.Virtual communities are reliant upon member participation through publishing or posting content within the community in order to build sense of belonging and community. Relying on alternatives to face-to-face communication, members are creating content to express group identity and experiences. One alternative communicative method is through Internet memes. Internet memes are units of information – usually presented in the combined form of photo and text – that embeds cultural values and norms of said group. This study conducted an experiment to investigate the impact Internet memes have on one’s collective identity within online communities.
\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\tH1. (a) Users exposed to meme content will perceive a higher sense of community and (b) will perceive a higher sense of belonging, compared to those exposed to non-meme content
\n\tH2. (a) The group with higher initial group identity (PSU community) will perceive higher sense of belonging and (b) higher sense of community than the group with less initial group identity (Communication majors community).
\n\tH3. Users exposed to meme content will have higher attitude toward the online community, compared to those exposed to non-meme content.
\n\tH4. Users exposed to memes content will find the content more humorous than those exposed to non-meme content.
\n\tMETHOD
\n\tOne hundred and eighty-six participants were randomly assigned to one of four orders of a 2 (Group: Communication majors community vs. PSU community) by 2 (Content: meme vs. non-meme) experiment. Four separate Facebook pages were created, each featuring articles pertaining to the group and images. For each Facebook page, six photos were posted, two groups used memes, and two groups had non-meme images. The dependent variables, sense of belonging and sense of community, were operationalized with established scales. Participants were asked to scroll through the assigned Facebook page, and were presented with a survey afterwards.
\n\tRESULTS
\n\tH1& H2: Partially Supported. Group acts as a moderator of the relationship between type of content and both, sense of community and sense of belonging. For the community with high initial identification with the group (PSU community), there is a lower sense of belonging and sense of community reported by participants in the community that viewed memes compared to the community that did not view memes. The opposite holds true for the community with low initial identification to the group (Communication majors community), where participants in the meme condition reported a higher sense of community and sense of belonging compared to those in the non-meme condition.
\n\tH3: Partially Supported. Group acts as a moderator of the relationship between type of content and attitude toward the Facebook page. For the community with high initial identification with the group (PSU community), there is a lower attitude toward the page for participants in the community that viewed memes compared to the community that did not view memes. The opposite holds true for the community with low initial identification to the group (Communication majors community), where participants in the meme condition reported a higher attitude toward the page compared to those in the non-meme condition.
\n\tH4: Not supported. Users exposed to memes content did not find it more humorous than those exposed to non-meme content.
\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tInternet memes can influence sense of belonging, sense of community, and attitude toward a community, however, contextual factors such as audience should be considered before assessing if the use of memes in fact will be successful. As our results indicate, the initial identification to the group is an important contributor to the different perceptions regarding Internet memes, and thus perceived sense of belonging, sense of community, and attitude toward the page.
\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the “COMM 506: Research Methods in Communications” course.
\n\t
\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tProduct review source, and message analyses feature predominantly in e-commerce literature, but questions persist about the effects of product review modality on consumer perceptions. In addition, video games research has not adequately addressed the impact of video game reviews on the games industry and audiences. The current research attempted to address the gaps presented in either body of literature by “reviewing” the effect of product review modalities (video, audio, and text) and game genre, on perceived source credibility of video game reviews.
\n\tRESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESES
\n\n\tRQ 1: For the general population, what is the relationship between review modality, genre and perceived source credibility of the video game review?
\n\tRQ 2: For the general population, what is the relationship between review modality, genre, and perceived trustworthiness of the video game review?
\n\tRQ 3: For the general population, what is the relationship between review modality, genre, and attitudes toward the video game review?
\n\tH1: Review modality and Genre will be significantly related to game reviews’ perceived source credibility.
\n\tH2: Narrative Involvement will be higher in the video modality condition than in audio, which will be higher than the text modality, across all genres.
\n\tH3: Review modality will have a significant effect on participant distraction, moderated by genre.
\n\tH4: Message credibility will be perceived as higher for the video condition than for audio, and text will have the lowest message credibility.
\n\tH5: Review modality will have a significant effect on participants’ attitudes towards the reviews, moderated by genre.
\n\tMETHOD
\n\tDescribe your research method in a small paragraph. Please include all pertinent information.
\n\tA 4 (Genre: First-Person Shooter vs. Action-Adventure vs. Strategy vs. Storytelling) x 3 (Review Modality: Video vs. Text vs. Audio) fully factorial, between-subjects online questionnaire experiment was conducted to test the effect of Review Modality and Genre on perceived Source Credibility, Message Credibility, Narrative Involvement , Attitude towards the reviews, Distraction, and Enjoyment of web experiences. Participants were recruited online using Amazon Mechanical Turk, in exchange for monetary compensation (N = 499). Participants were randomly assigned to a genre and modality condition, and were presented with a video, audio or text type of review. Each type of review modality contained 3 different game titles, categorized under one genre, for a total of 12 games in all (Example: Action Adventure-Witcher 3, Rise of the Tomb Raider, and Uncharted 4).
\n\tRESULTS
\n\tPlease describe your results in a paragraph here. If including tables, add table number and table title.
\n\tA 2x2 Factorial ANOVA on Source Credibility showed that Review Modality had a significant main effect F (3, 431) = 7.80, p < .01. However, Genre did not show a significant effect F (3, 431) = 1.96, p < .12. H1 was therefore partially supported. The difference between Video (M = 5.13, SE = 0.06) and both Text (M = 4.81, SE = 0.07) as well as Audio (M = 4.93, SE = 0.06) were significant.
\n\t![\"Figure1\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/chiavarolicarly_6765175_80305211_Figure01.jpg\")
\n\tFigure 1. The interaction effects of Genre and Modality on Source Credibility
\n\n\tWhile Genre not make a significant difference in participants’ perceived source credibility, there was a significant interaction effect between Modality and Genre, F (6, 431) 2.95, p < .01. Review Modality had significant main effects on Narrative Involvement F (2, 431) = 14.76, p < .01, Distraction F (2, 431) = 5.83, p < .01, and Attitude toward the review F (2, 431) = 3.52, p < .05. Given these results, H2 was partially supported, and H3 was confirmed. H5 was fully supported: review modality, moderated by genre, had a significant effect on participants’ attitude towards the review stimuli.
\n\n\t![\"Figure](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/chiavarolicarly_6765175_80305212_Figure02.jpg\")
Figure 2. Graph of the interaction effects of Genre and Modality on Review Involvement
\n\t![\"Figure](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/chiavarolicarly_6765175_80305213_Figure03.jpg\")
\n\tFigure 3. Graph of the interaction effects of Genre and Modality on Attitude towards the review
\n\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\n\tHoning in on the modality of the video game review revealed many differences for the level of perceived credibility, attitude, distraction, and narrative involvement. However, these differences were not always uniform across genre, or in a consistent order of effects. Genre was revealed to be a strong moderator of the differences in review modality, particularly for Strategy and FPS game genres. This study demonstrates that there is still more to learn about the nature and efficacy of product reviews in general. Concerning the video game industry and research field; as video games become increasingly successful in terms of market share, and the landscape of online reviewing changes to adapt to Web 2.0, it is crucial that media companies know the best strategies for connecting with their customers. The results of this study lend some support for visual media as the most appropriate reviewing tool for a product that is mostly visual and experience driven in nature (like a video game). Though maintaining content equivalency was a goal of the present study, future research should expand the exploration of genre and modality to include multiple review sites and structures.
\n\n\t
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31066", "31068", "31075" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2017-08-21T17:45:08-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33687, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "37864cb4-c4eb-428a-a6fc-7b91ce8708f6", "siteSettingsId": 33687, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21225, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Cyberbullying and its Relationship with Long Term Psychological and Behavioral Effects", "slug": "cyberbullying-and-its-relationship-with-long-term-psychological-and-behavio", "uri": "medialab/research-article/cyberbullying-and-its-relationship-with-long-term-psychological-and-behavio", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:47-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:12:43-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33687, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/cyberbullying-and-its-relationship-with-long-term-psychological-and-behavio", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/cyberbullying-and-its-relationship-with-long-term-psychological-and-behavio", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41594": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Richard Caneba", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41595": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Qiguan Jiang", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis paper was based on a project as part of the “COMM 506: Research Methods in Communications” course.
\n\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\n\tIn an information society, our ever increasing exposure to communication technology has given rise to a new form of negative behaviors: cyberbullying. While there is already a significant body of literature and study concerning traditional bullying behaviors, cyberbullying as a relatively new phenomenon has a number of unique features that are still being studied and understood. As a result of cyberbullying’s youth as a concept, many of the long-term effects of exposure are still being understood and examined.
\n\n\tOur research is aimed to find out the relationship between previous exposure to cyberbullying and psychological effects. We break down each variable into several sub concepts. Cyberbullying was broken down into six sub-concepts: 1) flaming/harassment, 2) denigration, 3) impersonation, 4), outing, 5) exclusion, 6) cyberstalking. We studied the relationship between these sub-concepts insofar as they composed the construct of cyberbullying and public speaking confidence, self esteem and anxiety level.
\n\n\tRESEARCH QUESTIONS/HYPOTHESES
\n\n\tFor Americans and Canadians aged from 18-35,
\n\tControlling for gender,
\n\tRQ 1: What is the relationship between exposure to cyberbullying in the past and public speaking confidence?
\n\tRQ 2: What is the relationship between exposure to cyberbullying in the past and self-esteem?
\n\tRQ 3: What is the relationship between exposure to cyberbullying in the past and anxiety level?
\n\tHypotheses:
\n\tH1: There is a negative correlation between previous exposure to cyberbullying and public speaking confidence.
\n\tH2: There is a negative correlation between previous exposure to cyberbullying and self-esteem.
\n\tH3: There is a positive correlation between previous exposure to cyberbullying and anxiety level.
\n\tMETHOD
\n\n\tFollowing a small pilot study where we gathered feedback from our social networks in regards to to the composition of our survey, we deployed this survey questionnaire through Amazon Mechanical Turk to 400 respondents (n=272 after filtering for age and IP redundancies), done in 3 batches over 3 days. The survey first asked respondents to accept a consent form, and then were asked for their age. If respondents failed the age check, they were sent to the end of the survey. Respondents between the ages of 18 and 35 were sent to the full survey. After answering several demographics questions, they were exposed to the IV and DV Likert-style scales. Respondents were first asked to report on their previous exposure to a number of cyberbullying incidents, and then responded to 3 well established scales purporting to measure their respective dependent variables: a subset of items from the PRCA-24 scale to measure public speaking confidence, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale to measure self-esteem, and the Beck Anxiety Inventory to measure anxiety levels. Each variable was assigned an index that was generated by summing their respective items, after reverse coding the negatively worded items. This data was then analyzed through JMP (v. 13.0.0), treating each index as a continuous, ratio level variable.
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\tThrough a simple linear regression analysis, we found that cyberbullying exposure was negatively correlated with self-esteem (H2):
\n\t![\"Table](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Table01.png\")
\n\tTable 1. Cyberbullying exposure and self-esteem regression
\n\n\tCyberbullying exposure also was shown to be positively correlated with anxiety levels (H3):
\n\n\t![\"Table](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Table02.png\")
\n\tTable 2. Cyberbullying exposure and anxiety levels regression
\n\n\tUnintuitively, we found that cyberbullying exposure was positively correlated with public speaking confidence, confirming the opposite of H1:
\n\n\t![\"Table](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Table03.png\")
\n\tTable 3. Cyberbullying exposure and public speaking confidence regression
\n\n\tA refinement of these findings found that cyberstalking targeting was the only sub-concept of cyberbullying that had a significant effect on the variance of anxiety levels:
\n\n\t![\"Table](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Table04.png\")
\n\tTable 4. Effect Tests for Cyberbullying Sub-Concepts on Anxiety
\n\n\tLikewise, we discovered that flaming/harassment targeting exposure was the only sub-concept that had a significant effect on the variance of self-esteem levels:
\n\n\t![\"Table](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Table05.png\")
\n\tTable 5. Effect Tests for Cyberbullying Sub-Concepts on Self-Esteem
\n\n\tA moderator analysis revealed that gender was a significant moderator of the relationship between cyberstalking and anxiety:
\n\n\t![\"Table](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Table06.png\")
\n\tTable 6. Effect tests table indicating interaction effect of gender on cyberstalking to anxiety relationship
\n\n\tA formal test of mediation revealed that anxiety levels were a significant mediator of the relationship between flaming/harassment targeting and self-esteem
\n\n\tCONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION
\n\tWhile the confirmation of H2 and H3 was unsurprising (but noteworthy nonetheless), the unintuitive confirmation of the opposite of H1 was rather surprising. There were a couple of possible theories that we entertained, and should consider for future study: the effect of visibility (which is a natural outcome of regularly speaking in public) on cyberbullying exposure, and aggression as a compensatory mechanism in response to cyberbullying. Gender moderation of the relationship between cyberstalking and anxiety level we theorized as something indicative of the lower level of anxiety that the female group had at low or no exposure to cyberbullying, insofar as the same or comparable amount of exposure to cyberbullying will exhibit stronger effects on a population less accustomed to it, i.e. males in this case. Mediation of the relationship between flaming/harassment exposure (a sub-concept of cyberbullying) and self-esteem by anxiety captures a fascinating notion: that anxiety is a strong predictor of self-esteem.
\n\t
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "22750", "postDate": "2017-07-03T15:25:24-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33681, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "b51e2de6-1757-4fbf-80b4-4f03767cdc71", "siteSettingsId": 33681, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21223, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The Effects of Interactivity-induced Control and Absorption on Persuasion", "slug": "the-effects-of-interactivity-induced-control-and-absorption-on-persuasion", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-effects-of-interactivity-induced-control-and-absorption-on-persuasion", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:45-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:12:41-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33681, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-effects-of-interactivity-induced-control-and-absorption-on-persuasion", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-effects-of-interactivity-induced-control-and-absorption-on-persuasion", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41589": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Lulu Peng", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41590": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jomara Binda", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tRecent studies (e.g., Kang & Sundar, 2016; Oh & Sundar, 2015) revealed that simply changing media features can have an impact on persuasive outcomes of health-related content; however, the question remains as to whether and how interactivity can enhance the persuasiveness of specific message types, such as fear appeals.
\n\n\tWe proposed that certain interactivity affordances may function to increase persuasion by enhancing fear arousal and suppressing psychological reactance. The interactivity effects model (Sundar, 2007) argues that the proximal outcomes (e.g., perceived contingency) of interactivity can contribute to user engagement. Users that are more involved in the content are potentially more subject to the influence of emotional appeals (Slater & Rouner, 2002), meaning that they may experience a higher level of fear arousal. In addition, some types of interactivity affordances indicate more action possibilities and system responsiveness (Oh & Sundar, 2015; Sundar, Bellur, Oh, Jia, & Kim, 2016), which likely renders a sense of control. Perceived control elicited by website interactivity may counteract perceived threat to freedom provoked by fear appeals and the suppression of perceived threat to freedom can lead to more promising persuasive outcomes.
\n\n\tH1: Modality interactivity → Interface assessment → Absorption → Fear → Persuasion
\n\tH2: Message interactivity → Perceived contingency → Absorption → Fear → Persuasion
\n\tH3: Source interactivity → Agency enhancement → Absorption → Fear → Persuasion
\n\tH4: Message interactivity → Perceived contingency →Perceived control → Perceived threat to freedom (Reactance) →Persuasion
\n\tH5: Source interactivity→ Agency enhancement →Perceived control → Perceived threat to freedom (Reactance) → Persuasion
\n\tA 2 (modality interactivity: presence vs. absence) × 2 (message interactivity: presence vs. absence) × 2 (source interactivity: presence vs. absence) fully factorial, between-subjects experiment was utilized to test the hypotheses. Participants (N = 272) were randomly assigned to one of the conditions (i.e., to browse one of the websites with fear-based persuasive content) and asked to answer questions regarding their perceptions of the website as well as their intention of compliance.
\n\n\t![\"Interactivity,](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/interactivity-img1.jpg\")
\n\tFigure 1. Modality interactivity: the absence condition (a) and the presence condition (b).
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\n\n\t![\"Interactivity,](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/interactivity-img2.jpg\")
\n\tFigure 2. Message interactivity: the absence condition (left) and the presence condition (right).
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\n\n\t![\"Interactivity,](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/interactivity-img3.jpg\")
\n\t
\n\tFigure 3. Source interactivity: the presence condition (Share on Social Media (top) and Leave Comments (bottom).
\n\t
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\n\n\tH2-H5 were supported; H1 was not supported. We did not find a significant effect of modality interactivity (manipulated as a gallery) on interface assessment. Message interactivity (layered content and breadcumbs) promoted perceived contingency, which led to more cognitive absorption in the site, resulting in more fear arousal, hence more persuasion. Perceived contingency also suppressed perceived threat to freedom (a proxy for psychological reactance) prompted by the content through perceived control of the interface, resulting in more intention of compliance. Furthermore, source interactivity (sharing and commenting functions) promoted perceived agency, which led to more user engagement (i.e., cognitive absorption), resulting in more fear arousal, hence more intention to follow the advocated behavior. The enhanced agency also led to more perceived control of the interface, which suppressed perceived threat to freedom prompted by the content, resulting in more intention of compliance.
\n\n\tPerceived control and cognitive absorption were identified as the key mediators that bridged the effects of medium and content: perceived control generated by interactivity affordances could reduce perceived threat to freedom evoked by the persuasive content; engagement with the site could increase fear arousal as a way to influence persuasion.
\n\n\tThis study suggests the potential to mitigate unintended message effects with medium-related strategies by revealing a relation between perceived control and threat to freedom. Campaign designers who use websites as information dissemination channels and aim to suppress reactance are advised to seek ways to enhance perceived control such that the counterproductive perceptions or behaviors associated with reactance are reduced. In addition, given that the level of fear arousal might differ depending on to what extent an individual was absorbed in the site, health campaign designers that focus on fear appeals and seek to use a web-based channel may look into ways to promote absorption as a means to instigate more fear arousal.
", "submittedBy": "Jin Kang", "submittersEmailAddress": "jbk5361@psu.edu", "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31061", "31063", "31076", "31077" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "21904", "postDate": "2015-05-11T17:46:31-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33675, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "ca4ea18b-3230-4a49-85da-04ba3075c245", "siteSettingsId": 33675, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21221, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The Role of Affordance Based Gratifications in the Selection of Media Content and Devices", "slug": "the-role-of-affordance-based-gratifications-in-the-selection-of-media-conte", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-role-of-affordance-based-gratifications-in-the-selection-of-media-conte", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:44-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:12:39-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33675, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-role-of-affordance-based-gratifications-in-the-selection-of-media-conte", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-role-of-affordance-based-gratifications-in-the-selection-of-media-conte", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41584": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Erica Bailey", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41585": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Chun Yang", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis research sought to examine the relationships between media content selection affordance- based gratifications of technology. We employed a survey in which participants answered questions about perceived affordance-based gratifications of laptops, tablets, cell phones, and televisions. Results lent support to prior technological affordance-based gratifications differ for various devices. Further, different gratifications were predictive of different media content on the four devices examined, suggesting psychological and technological affordances should be considered together. Televisions were the lowest across all four types of gratifications among the four devices. On the contrary, laptops were considered to be able to provide most agency, interactivity, and navigability-based gratifications, more than smartphones and tablets. Smartphones and tablets didn’t differ in interactivity and navigability-based gratifications, manifesting the similar features that related to both interactivity and navigability on smartphones and tablets. There were no differences in modality-based gratifications between smartphones, tablets, and laptops. Lastly, smartphones were rated higher in agency-based gratifications than tablets. Implications for communication technology designers as well as communication technology researchers are discussed.
", "submittedBy": "Erica Bailey", "submittersEmailAddress": "eub185@psu.edu", "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31075" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "21904", "postDate": "2015-05-10T23:39:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33667, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "90660aef-4224-44eb-a529-306e1f90782a", "siteSettingsId": 33667, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21219, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Putting Negativity Bias to the Test", "slug": "putting-negativity-bias-to-the-test", "uri": "medialab/research-article/putting-negativity-bias-to-the-test", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:43-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:34:54-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33667, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/putting-negativity-bias-to-the-test", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/putting-negativity-bias-to-the-test", "subtitle": "The Effect of Modality in Cross-valence Conditions", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41577": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Xiaoye Zhou", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41578": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Na Sun", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41579": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Nia Marie Sherony", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tWith its great convenience and practicality, online shopping is more popular than ever. Online shoppers have been shown to rely heavily on online reviews when making purchase decisions. A 3 × 3 × 2 ANCOVA test (N=206) found significant main effects of the modality of positive and negative reviews on consumers’ attitude and behavioral intentions toward products. Also, attitude was found to mediate the effect of positive review modality on consumer behavioral intention, which is subsequently moderated by negative review modality. Theoretical implications and practical implication are discussed in this paper.
\n\n\tH1a: The modality of positive reviews will have a main effect on perceived review usefulness.
\n\tH1b: The modality of negative reviews will have a main effect on perceived review usefulness.
\n\tH1c: The modality of positive reviews will have a main effect on perceived review credibility.
\n\tH1d: The modality of negative reviews will have a main effect on perceived review credibility.
\n\tH2a: The modality of positive reviews will have a main effect on attitude toward the product.
\n\tH2b: The modality of negative reviews will have a main effect on attitude toward the product.
\n\tH2c: The modality of positive reviews will have a main effect on behavioral intention toward the product.
\n\tH2d: The modality of negative reviews will have a main effect on behavioral intention toward the product.
\n\tRQ1: Will there be an interaction effect between the modalities of positive and negative reviews on consumers’ attitude toward the product?
\n\tRQ2: Will there be an interaction between the modalities of positive and negative reviews on consumers’ behavioral intention toward the product?
\n\tRQ3: Will the modalities of positive and negative reviews indirectly influence behavioral intentions toward the product, mediated by consumers’ attitudes toward the product?
\n\tOur study aims to reveal modality prominence in cross-valence product review pairs. We conducted a 3 (modality of positive reviews) × 3 (modality of negative reviews) × 2 (product types) mixed full factorial design. The basic experiment involved participants exposed to two types of products, a USB drive and a printer, each of which was presented with a pair of reviews – one positive, one negative – following two rounds of pretests. In addition to product type as the within-subject variable, we include two other between-subject variables: modality of the positive review (text, text-plus-picture, or video), and modality of the negative review (text, text-plus-picture, or video). The experiment was constructed so that independent variables are mixed and interact together in full factorial design, giving rise to a collection of 18 cases in total. Each experimental condition always has a cross-valence pair of reviews due to the combination of the modalities under opposite valence (positive and negative). The details for each of the independent variables will be introduced in the following section. It should be noted that the product difference, or the within-subject variable is not the focus of the study. Instead, its function in the experiment is (1) to rule out the possible personal relevance or bias to the product being reviewed, and (2) to enhance the external validity of our study in general in positive (or negative) review modalities.
\n\n\tWe found main effects of positive review modality, negative review modality, and product type on consumers’ attitude toward the product and behavioral intention toward the product. We also found significant interactions of positive review modality and negative review modality on both attitude and behavioral intention toward the product. When negative video is present, the modality of the positive review does not make many difference. When the negative review becomes less rich in terms of modality, from video to text-plus-picture, and to text only, the positive video failed to counteract the negative review valence, leading to a sharp drop in the graph from right to left. We also found that when cross-valence reviews were present in the same modality (i.e., positive text and negative text, positive text & picture and negative text & picture, positive video and negative video), positive valence reviews seemed to outweigh their negative counterparts. Last but not least, we found the effect of positive review modality on behavioral intention was mediated by consumers’ attitude toward the product, and moderated by negative review modality.
\n\n\tFor both negative and positive reviews, the text modality dominated the counterpart modality when the modalities in the cross-valence review pairs differ. In contrast, video is of the least importance in predicting product attitude and behavioral intent when balancing out the effect of modality in the opposing valence review conditions. positive video is more subject to the influence of negative modality, especially when the level of the latter variable changes from negative video to negative text, only. The rating of product attitude of the same modality was significantly higher than the rest, and increased compared with prior brand evaluation.
\n\n\t
\n\t
\n\tModern robots that are equipped with higher-level skills to conduct various tasks, have taken over many tasks that are traditionally performed by humans (Nass, Lombard, Henriksen, & Steuer, 1995). In fact, many robots these days have sophisticated senses and skills and can undertake duties that have been associated with humanness, such as greeting customers at department stores, depositing or withdrawing money out of bank accounts, and even conducting complex surgery. For instance, Toshiba Corporation recently placed a humanoid robot at the information desk of a department store in Tokyo to provide customer service for its customers (Hongo, 2015). However, it is no longer the case that robots are only conducting repetitive work that can be easily pre-programmed. One such area is that of AI-writers or computational journalism. Because writing is thought of as a very human task, the emergence of AI-writers has been met with a wary eye (Morozov, 2012). In a sense, it has become clear that it may be robots, not monkeys, who might be writing the next Shakespeare.
\n\n\tBecause this technology is new, research on the topic of AI-writers is slim. However, two studies have explored the phenomenon. Kaa and Krahmer (2014) used the labels of “computer” and “journalist” to test reader effects on source and message credibility, and found that there were no significant differences, except in the case of the participant being a journalist, in which case the journalist was perceived as more trustworthy. Similarly, Edwards, Edwards, Spence, and Shelton (2014) found that twitter “bot” agents did not differ from the human agent in measures of source credibility or communication competence.
\n\n\tThe aforementioned studies suggest the similarity in reactions to AI and human sources, but we believed a more rigorous theoretical approach was necessary to understand (1) if there are differential effects of an AI-writer as source, and (2) the psychological mechanisms through which such effects may occur. Therefore, we framed this research using Sundar’s (2008) MAIN model, which suggests the heuristic processing of content, and hypothesizes on the effects of source interface cues. We utilized the past research on source-orientation (Sundar & Nass, 2001) and the uncanny valley (Mori, 1972) to inform the current study.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tRQ1: What is the relationship between news writer, authority cue, and topic, on credibility and behavioral intentions?
\n\n\tRQ2: Will this relationship be mediated by eeriness or novelty?
\n\n\tH1: Higher level of authority cue will lead to higher credibility judgements and behavioral intentions.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tA 2 (source: AI vs. Human) x 2 (authority: low vs. high) x 3 (genre: Health, Politics, Finance) + 3 (control for each genre) between-subjects online experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis and research questions. Participants (N = 435) were randomly assigned to one of the 15 conditions, in which they were exposed to a news-story stimuli which varied on the aforementioned factors, and subsequently filled out a questionnaire regarding their perceptions of the credibility of the source, message, website, as well as their behavioral intentions.
\n\n\tStimuli
\n\n\t![\"AI-Writer,](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/AI_High_Fin.png\")
\n\t![\"Human-Writer,](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Hum_Low_Finance.png\")
\n\t
\n\n\tIn summary, we found that there was a significant interaction effect between news writer and topic, as well as a generally positive effect for high authority. Specifically, the human writer was preferred in health news, but the AI-writer was preferred in financial news. There were no significant interactions found between news writer and authority cue, nor were there any significant three-way interactions on the dependent variables. Furthermore, we found that in health news, paths through eeriness, eeriness and writer trust, and novelty mediated the news writer effect. The authority cue positive effect was relatively consistent in the predicted direction.
\n\n\tThe increased agency being given to machines may be a boon for many, but those who think it will always be accepted by the public may need to take a step back and research the psychological effects that emerge in the human-AI relationship. This study suggests that the machine may have a distinct psychological persona, and that individuals may even prefer machines as writers in some contexts, but may also be uncomfortable with AIs writing health news. In addition, the study contributes to the literature of source-orientation in digital contexts. In this case, the effect of the news-writer, perhaps because of its novelty, was not moderated by that of the gatekeeper or editorial outlet. Furthermore, this study provides evidence that perceived eeriness may be a key psychological variable to consider in future HRI / HCI studies, even in the absence of an embodied agent.
\n\n\tIn closing, we will address a question posed by Levy (2012) in his wired story on Narrative Science. In the piece, Levy asked if an algorithm could write a better news story than a human. Of course, there is no perfect way to measure what a better news story is, but our study answers this question from the perspective of the newsreader. Finding that at least we think an algorithm can write a better news story than a human, in some contexts.
", "submittedBy": "Andrew James Gambino", "submittersEmailAddress": "aug268@psu.edu", "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31061", "31066", "31067" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "21904", "postDate": "2015-05-08T20:57:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33655, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "e7fc2483-65e4-4453-8162-3e1d7cc63a31", "siteSettingsId": 33655, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21215, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Unpacking the Audiovisual Modality", "slug": "unpacking-the-audiovisual-modality", "uri": "medialab/research-article/unpacking-the-audiovisual-modality", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:40-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:38:03-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33655, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/unpacking-the-audiovisual-modality", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/unpacking-the-audiovisual-modality", "subtitle": "Effects of Visual and Audio Valence Congruence on Message Perceptions", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41567": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Tyler Augst", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41568": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Eric Meczkowski", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThe use of exemplars in news media is extremely commonplace and these exemplars have been shown to influence audience perceptions of the news story and the actual event being covered. One understudied form of these exemplars is the inclusion of stock video footage behind a spoken television news report. Previous research on exemplars has been limited to investigating exemplars in only one modality or extreme multimodality, like the Internet. Using an experimental design, this study, using exemplars composed of a video footage and a spoken word narration (like that seen on the nightly news), examines the relationships between modality and valence of exemplar messages and the perceived vividness, perceived credibility, and attitudes regarding the issue.
\n\n\tRQ: For U.S. citizens, controlling for socioeconomic status, education, and past experience with rurality, what are the relationships between visual and audio message valence, and perceived vividness, perceived credibility, and attitudes towards rurality?
\n\n\tAmazon's Mechanical Turk was used to recruit a total of 217 participants for this research. A 2 x 2 experimental message design that manipulated the valence (positive or negative) of audio and video content was adopted. The valence of the congruent messages was unambiguous (positive visual and positive audio, or negative visual and negative audio), whereas the incongruent messages lacked this correspondence (negative visual and positive audio, or positive visual and negative audio). Participants were randomly assigned to one of these four conditions which served as the independent variables in this research. Then, participants were asked to report upon the vividness and credibility of the message, as well as their attitudes toward rurality.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/1_4.png\")
\n\tFigure 1. 2x2 Experimental Design with Valenced Audio and Visual Content as Factors
\n\tANOVA analysis revealed a significant interaction effect between visual and audio valence content for both perceptions of message vividness and perceptions of message credibility. More specifically, when visual valence was negative and audio valence was positive, perceptions of vividness and credibility were low. However, when visual valence was positive and audio valence was negative, vividness and credibility were no different from the congruent conditions. Additionally, attitudes toward rurality were the result of audio valence. No main effect or interaction with visual valence was found. Moderated mediation analysis revealed that attitudes were mediated by credibility, which in turn was mediated by vividness.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/2_2.png\")
\n\tFigure 2. Effects of Visual and Audio Valence on Perceived Vividness
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/3_2.png\")
\n\tFigure 3. Effects of Visual and Audio Valence on Perceived Credibility
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/4_2.png\")
\n\tFigure 4. Effects of Visual and Audio Valence on Attitudes toward Rurality
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/5_1.png\")
\n\tFigure 5. Moderated Mediation Analysis of Visual and Audio Valence on Vividness and Credibility
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/6.png\")
\n\tFigure 6. Moderated Mediation Analysis of Visual and Audio Valence on Credibility and Attitudes
\n\n\tOne of the most interesting findings from this study was that the relationship between the valence of one modality in the message to the outcome variables depended on the valence of the other modality. This moderation between modalities implies that future research on exemplars should examine the effects of each modality individually with an eye towards how they may interact with one another. This also project succeeded in beginning to unpack the processing of exemplar messages in an attempt to further the understanding of why these types of messages have consistently been found to be more influential than base-rate information. In the initial formulation of exemplification theory, Zillmann argued that exemplars were more readily stored and made available to individuals because of the exemplar’s memorability or vividness. This vividness of exemplars was supported by the high overall perceived vividness among all conditions. The moderated mediation analysis presented above shows that the perceived vividness of the exemplars helps to explain variations in perceived message credibility, which in turn can explain variations in attitudes toward the issue at hand.
", "submittedBy": "Tyler Augst", "submittersEmailAddress": "tja170@psu.edu", "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31066" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "21904", "postDate": "2015-05-07T22:24:11-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33649, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "6071ef6a-8f4b-400d-9fd4-b82ad2cf65b8", "siteSettingsId": 33649, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21213, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "A Survey Study of Fitness and Food Logging Apps, and the People Who Use Them", "slug": "a-survey-study-of-fitness-and-food-logging-apps-and-the-people-who-use-them", "uri": "medialab/research-article/a-survey-study-of-fitness-and-food-logging-apps-and-the-people-who-use-them", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:39-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:12:32-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33649, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/a-survey-study-of-fitness-and-food-logging-apps-and-the-people-who-use-them", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/a-survey-study-of-fitness-and-food-logging-apps-and-the-people-who-use-them", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41562": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Nathan Aileo", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41563": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jake Weidman", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThe growing problem of obesity is affecting more people every year. Research into factors contributing to the rise of obesity point to poor food selection and exercise habits that may be rooted in a lack of education on the subjects. The rise of the smartphone platforms, fitness apps, and health-related web tools seem like a likely source of aid in reducing the problems of obesity. Through a survey and analysis we sought to review the current state of research in this field and extend theoretical explanations for some phenomenon where applicable. Our results were surprising in some cases and bear further explanation, but we believe we have helped extend the understanding of how mobile health applications such as food journaling may fit into the world of managing health as well as design implications and areas for further research.
", "submittedBy": "Nathan Aileo", "submittersEmailAddress": "nna102@psu.edu", "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31059", "31063" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-25T18:26:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33645, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "43e84363-64fa-4a42-bbb6-68cca9d441c3", "siteSettingsId": 33645, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21211, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The therapeutic effects of cinema:", "slug": "the-therapeutic-effects-of-cinema1", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-therapeutic-effects-of-cinema1", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:38-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:35:23-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33645, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-therapeutic-effects-of-cinema1", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-therapeutic-effects-of-cinema1", "subtitle": "An experimental study of catharsis through narrative media and contemplation", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23149" ], "studentResearchers": { "41559": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Khoo, Guan-Soon", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tCatharsis has been dismissed by behaviorists and media psychologists since the 1970s because the dominant venting model has failed to produce empirical support for this construct (Bushman, Baumeister, & Stack, 1999; Geen & Quanty, 1977; Zillmann, 1998). However, the notion of catharsis persists in the Humanities (Belfiore, 1992) and everyday usage. Using a broadened conceptualization, based on the clarification view (Halliwell, 1986; Nussbaum, 1986; Oatley, 2011), this research proposed a new catharsis theory and tested its hypotheses using narrative media and a 20-minute self-reflection task.
\n\n\tH1a: Exposure to human drama and expressive writing on the drama positively predicts health and psychological well-being compared to non-expressive writing on a non-emotional topic.
\n\tH1b: Imagining a traumatic event and writing expressively on the trauma positively predicts health and psychological well-being compared to non- expressive writing on a non-emotional topic.
\n\tH2: Exposure to human drama coupled with expressive writing leads to greater identification compared to imagining a traumatic event and writing expressively about it.
\n\tH3: Greater identification leads to greater self-efficacy in negative affect regulation.
\n\tH4a: Self-efficacy in negative affect regulation positively predicts physical health.
\n\tH4b: Self-efficacy in negative affect regulation positively predicts psychological well-being.
\n\tH5: Exposure to human drama leads to greater meaningful affective states when the individual writes expressively about the human drama compared to no expressive writing.
\n\tH6: Greater meaningful affect leads to greater self-compassion.
\n\tH7a: Self-compassion positively predicts physical health.
\n\tH7b: Self-compassion positively predicts psychological well-being.
\n\tH9: Identification and transportation will mediate the relationships between narrativity and congruency between media characteristics and characteristics of the self-narrative and self-concept.
\n\tRQ1: What will be more strongly associated with congruency between media characteristics and characteristics of the self-narrative and self-concept: transportation or identification?
\n\tA 4-condition controlled experiment was designed to examine and explore catharsis through mediated human drama in two modes: cinematic and text-based.
\n\n\tResults showed that the direct effects of catharsis through media exposure and subsequent introspection were weak. Nonetheless, indirect cathartic effects through cinematic human drama were found in the form of improved general health and psychological well-being. These therapeutic effects were mediated by identification with fictional characters, improvements in self-efficacy in regulating sadness, increases in self-compassion, and the use of particular word categories during contemplation. For the latter, the use of greater insight and discrepancy words indirectly predicted better general health and mental well-being, whereas the use of more certainty and causation words marginally deteriorated health and well-being. This study provides evidence for media-centered cathartic effects and some explanatory mechanisms for their health consequences. Theoretical, research, and practical implications are discussed in light of future catharsis research and in support of nonimmediate or delayed media effects; study limitations and suggestions for follow-up investigations are also offered.
\n\n\tThe use of catharsis as a theoretical explanation for the redeeming qualities of expressing emotions has been made in social psychology research on real life events and traumas (Greenberg et al., 1996; Pennebaker & Beall, 1986) and in media psychology research on tragic drama (Zillmann, 1998). Media-induced catharsis is particularly valuable as a form of emotional coping without directly visiting the realities of everyday existence. The merit of catharsis through media that are designed for leisurely pursuits lies in the relative security of its indirect nature; distressing events experienced through fiction are not stained with personal memories, unlike the evocation of personal life events, and may enhance media users' development of psychological resilience to future episodes of undesirable emotional upheavals. Consequently, this catharsis study has attempted a novel application of the activity of expressive contemplation on human drama consumption and found evidence of benefits after a meaningful entertainment experience. In the process of this investigation, a new catharsis theory for media psychology was tested and indirect health effects were found for individuals who underwent self-reflection by writing a short essay on the tragic events portrayed in the human story to which they were exposed through storytelling media. The empirical evidence from this initial exploration of a catharsis theory not rooted in the pervasive notion of emotional purgation showed that the cinematic media has a high potential for facilitating catharsis through drama, especially when the vicarious experience is coupled with language-based introspection. Moreover, additional evidence suggests that the process of contemplation via a flexible personal outlook, as opposed to adopting fixed judgments on the fictional scenario, strongly promotes mental well-being in the subsequent weeks. Overall, these are notable findings in light of the disfavored reputation of this ancient concept in contemporary communications and psychology research. As a form of insight-gaining recreation attained through a stimulated imagination, catharsis appears to be very much alive and well.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31070" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-25T18:23:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33639, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "3cb35186-a529-4094-8694-560a0d39a55b", "siteSettingsId": 33639, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21209, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The influence of video game controllers and mirror images on game-player’s self-awareness, sense of control and enjoyment", "slug": "the-influence-of-video-game-controllers-and-mirror-images-on-game-players", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-influence-of-video-game-controllers-and-mirror-images-on-game-players", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:37-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:38:41-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33639, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-influence-of-video-game-controllers-and-mirror-images-on-game-players", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-influence-of-video-game-controllers-and-mirror-images-on-game-players", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "22826" ], "studentResearchers": { "41554": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jeeyun Oh", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41555": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Mun-Young Chung", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis study aims to explore the mechanism of game player enjoyment driven by the type of video game controllers. If total cut-off from reality is important for constructing immersive gameplay, the effect of motion controllers on players’ enjoyment will differ relying on how keenly players are aware of themselves who are physically existing in the real worlds. Another possible mechanism is that players’ perceived control over the gameplay decides their level of enjoyment. This study investigates both theoretical possibilities by manipulating players’ self-awareness and measuring their sense of control over the gameplay and ease of use, and examining the relationships between these variables and players’ enjoyment.
\n\n\tH1: The presence of mirror in the room will increase the degree of self-awareness.
\n\n\tH2: The main effect of the presence of mirror in the room on the degree of self-awareness will be more pronounced for those who use a motion controller.
\n\n\tH3: The degree of self-awareness will negatively predict the level of presence.
\n\n\tH4: The level of presence will positively predict the level of enjoyment.
\n\n\tH5: The presence of mirror in the room will decrease the degree of presence (H5a) and enjoyment (H5b).
\n\n\tH6: The negative effect of the presence of a mirror in the room on the degree of presence (H6a) and enjoyment (H6b) will be more pronounced for those who use a motion controller.
\n\n\tH7: Motion controller will induces less sense of control over the gameplay (H7a) and less sense of ease of use (H7b) than non-motion controller.
\n\n\tH8: The presence of a mirroring display will create less sense of control over the gameplay (H8a) and less sense of ease of use (H8b) compared to the control condition.
\n\n\tH9: Sense of control will positively predict enjoyment.
\n\n\tH10: Motion controller (H10a) and the presence of mirroring display (H10b) will create less enjoyment on the gameplay.
\n\n\tA 2 (Motion controller condition vs. Nunchuk condition) X 2 (Mirror condition vs. Control condition) between-subject experiment has been performed to test the hypotheses. A total of 62 undergraduate students were recruited from classes at Penn State University (average age 21, 47 females). Westchester map in Tiger Woods PGA Tour ’08 was used for the experiment. Nintendo Wii console with 42-inch screen was employed. All settings kept constant across the conditions such that the easiest playing options were chosen, except for the type of game controllers and the presence of a mirroring display in the room.
\n\n\tSelf-awareness. A significant interaction effect between the type of controllers and the mirroring self-image was found for the degree of self-awareness, F (1, 58) = 8.28, p < .01. With the motion controller, participants were less aware of how their body was moving during the gameplay when they were able to see themselves through the laptop screen (M = 4.02, SE =.23) compared to when they were not able to do it (M = 4.39, SE =.22). However, with Nunchuk controller, the pattern was the opposite. Participants were more aware of their body movement when they were able to see themselves through the screen (M = 4.76, SE =.23) than when they were not able to do it (M = 3.83, SE =.23).
\n\n\tSense of control. A significant interaction effect was found for sense of control, F (1, 58) = 5.22, p < .05. With the motion controller, participants were less likely to feel that they had control over the gameplay when they were able to see themselves through the laptop (M = 4.47, SE =.36) compared to when they did not see themselves (M = 5.06, SE =.34). With Nunchuk controller, they were more likely feel that they had control over the gameplay when they were able to see themselves (M = 5.27, SE =.36) than when they were not (M = 4.23, SE =.36).
\n\n\tEase of use. Similar with the interaction effects emerged for sense of control and self-awareness, there was a significant interaction effect was found for ease of use, F (1, 58) = 4.79, p < .05.
\n\n\tPredictors for enjoyment. First, a multiple regression analysis was performed to examine the type of controllers, the presence of mirroring display, the interaction term between the two manipulated factors, self-awareness, and presence as predictors of enjoyment (Table 2). These variables accounted for a significant portion of the variance in enjoyment (F (5, 56) = 2.41, p < .05, adjusted R2 = .104). Spatial presence was the only significant, positive predictor of the level of enjoyment. However, the significant effect of spatial presence disappeared when sense of control was introduced to the model (Table 3). Instead, the sense of control had a significant positive impact on the level of enjoyment. The model accounted for a significant portion of the variance in enjoyment (F (6, 55) = 5.44, p < .001, adjusted R2 = .304).
\n\n\tThe presence of a mirror image of oneself seems to make differences in participants’ perception of the physical control over the gameplay, rather than in immersion, presence, or enjoyment. Overall, participants perceived the game controller was easier to use and felt in control over the gameplay, when they were looking themselves with Nunchuk controller. For the motion controller, the fact that they were looking themselves worked as a negative factor for the perceived control over the gameplay and perceived ease of use of the controller. One possible explanation would be that looking oneself creates a certain degree of self-confirmation so much so that it creates a sense of control over the whole process of gameplay, including the operation of the game controller, especially when the mirrored image of self is compatible with their pre-existing images of self. Compared to the motion controller, Nunchuk controller condition would provide more familiar images of oneself for participants; sitting in front of the computer. When they are looking at themselves behaving something familiar, regardless of the actual result of the behavior, it can lead to the perception that they were the ones who controlled the gameplay. In contrast, looking oneself playing a video game with the motion controller would be unfamiliar to most of participants, thereby could create less sense of control over the whole process of gameplay.
\n\tNeither the mirror image nor the type of motion controller was related to the degree of presence or enjoyment that participants experienced. However, sense of control was a positive and significant predictor for both presence and enjoyment. It also takes out the effect of presence on enjoyment when it is entered as another predictor. These findings suggest that participants’ enjoyment of the gameplay is more likely to rely on how controllable the overall gaming experience is, rather than to be directly affected by the level of presence they experienced in the gameplay. For the sports game examined in this study, the physical control over the gameplay is probably the most important factor to consist of players’ enjoyment.
\n\tMahood. C., Oliver, M. B., & McGrath, J. (2000, June). The effects of home video game violence and fantasy portrayals upon enjoyment and emotional state: A gender comparison . Paper presented to the Mass Communication Division at the 50th annual conference of the International Communication Association (ICA), Acapulco, Mexico.
\n\n\tMany critics of the media industry have singled out video games as a major cause of several recent high school shootings such as the incident at Columbine High in Littleton, Colorado. It has been claimed that both student shooters were avid players of Doom, a \"first-person shooter\" video game categorized by high levels of depicted violence. The video game industry has recognized that males seem to enjoy violent video games more than females and have heavily targeted their games toward males. Several studies have shown this to be true. It is of further concern that not only is violence prevalent; the portrayal of violence is highly skewed toward a male perspective. It has also been shown that males may seek out this violence more than do females, but research has been mixed as to whether or not males actually enjoy this violence more than females do? The ambiguity in prior research is mostly likely due to two reasons. First, when research has compared violent video games with non-violent games it may have inadvertently measured an effect for the confounding variable of game genre. Researchers typically compare games that involve shooting, fighting or chasing digital characters (violent condition) with puzzle games (non-violent condition). Secondly, the studies mentioned above have looked at very unrealistic, two-dimensional games. It may also be of practical importance to study if a violent game that depicts fantasy-like creatures differs in effect from a game where the object is to kill more human-like creatures that employ realistic movements and facial characteristics. Given these findings and more recent developments of video game technologies, further research is needed to explore the effects of improved, more realistic portrayals in modern home video games. As the violence in video games becomes more 'real,' what effect will it have?
\n\n\tSpecifically, we asked the following research questions:
\n\n\tRQ1: Will there be gender differences in emotional agitation after exposure to video games, especially violent ones?
\n\n\tRQ2: Will enjoyment of games be greater if the video game contains realistic human, non-fantasy characters?
\n\n\tRQ3: Will emotional agitation following violent games be greater if the video game contains realistic human, non-fantasy characters?
\n\n\tBased on the research questions and prior research findings, the following hypotheses were proposed:
\n\n\tH1: Males will report playing more video games than females.
\n\n\tH2: Males will report greater enjoyment of most types of video games than will females, but particularly video games that portray violence.
\n\n\tH3: Exposure to violence in video games will increase males' enjoyment, but decrease females' enjoyment.
\n\n\tSeventy-six participants took part in a 2 (violent game demonstration vs. non-violent game demonstration) X 2 (human, non-fantasy enemies vs. alien fantasy enemies) between-subjects design.
\n\tViolent, non-fantasy enemies
\n\tViolent, alien fantasy enemies
\n\n\tTo maintain maximal control over the manipulation of violent content, subjects in this study were asked to view a demonstration of a video game rather than to engage in actual play (where some subjects may have played the game more violently than others). Before experimental exposure, subjects filled out a paper-and-pencil questionnaire inquiring as to their video game usage and preferences. After exposure, subjects were asked to rate their enjoyment of the game they watched, as well as their present emotional state.
\n\n\tH1: Partially Supported. Although a larger percentage of males than females reported play in arcades, on computers, and on home video games, these differences were significant for home video games alone.
\n\n\tH2: Supported. Consistent with Hypothesis 2, males in this study reported greater enjoyment of all video games, especially violent video games (e.g. shooting and fighting).
\n\n\tH3: Partially Supported. Exposure to violence in video games did increase males' enjoyment, but did not affect females' enjoyment.
\n\n\tRQ1: There were gender differences in emotional agitation after exposure to video games. Males were more tense and angry after viewing non-violent video games, while females were more tense and angry following the violent games.
\n\n\tRQ2: Enjoyment of video games did not differ as a function of realism of characters.
\n\n\tRQ3: Emotional agitation did not differ as a function of realism of characters.
\n\n\tResults indicate that not only do males play more video games than females, males also have a greater preference for violent games, while males and females prefer non-violent games equally. After viewing experimentally manipulated video games, males appeared to enjoy all the games, but especially the violent ones, more than females did. Yet females had the same level of enjoyment for both violent and non-violent games. Males and females also had differing levels of tension and anger following violent video games. Finally, fantasy violence had the same effect as more realistic violence upon both males and females.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31070" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-25T18:13:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33635, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "0155a111-5af3-42be-81f8-13fab5c0ca30", "siteSettingsId": 33635, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21207, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Do we improve, disrupt, or embrace sadness?", "slug": "do-we-improve-disrupt-or-embrace-sadness", "uri": "medialab/research-article/do-we-improve-disrupt-or-embrace-sadness", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:35-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:39:11-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33635, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/do-we-improve-disrupt-or-embrace-sadness", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/do-we-improve-disrupt-or-embrace-sadness", "subtitle": "Exploring sadness-based media choice and its anticipated effects on coping", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23149" ], "studentResearchers": { "41546": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jinhee Kim", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tKim, J., & Oliver, M. B. (2007). Do we improve, disrupt, or embrace sadness? Exploring sadness-based media choice and its anticipated effects on coping. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Montreal, Canada.
\n\n\tSadness, unlike other negative feelings, is unique in that its main causes are related to unpreventable and irreversible harm without any blamable objects. Due to these characteristics, previous theories of media use that center on enjoyment-focused use are not sufficient to explain sad viewers’ media use that is often inconsistent with hedonism-driven selection. To provide clues to understanding sadness-based media choice, the present study explores (a) cognitive antecedents that result in sad feelings (irrevocable loss of or separation from valuable people); identifies (b) people’s perceived salient goals in regard to coping with the sad feelings (improving, distracting, or embracing); and suggests (c) media genres that have structural similarities to the goals that sad people want to fulfill (comedy, game show, or sad drama). In addition to predicting media choices that are congruent with sad people’s perceived salient goals, anticipated emotional and cognitive outcomes resulting from the use of three media genres are included as potential mediators between sadness and media selection.
\n\n\tA total of four research hypotheses were posited to predict sad viewers’ media choice. If Zillmann’s theory is correct, sad viewers will choose content to satisfy the goal of hedonism—replacing sad feelings with pleasant ones.
\n\n\tH1a: Sad individuals will be more likely than neutral individuals to prefer media content presenting positive hedonic values (e.g., comedies).
\n\n\tZillmann’s theory also predicts that sad people prefer media content presenting absorbing potential (devoid of humor) to effectively disrupt sad feelings.
\n\n\tH1b: Sad individuals will be more likely than neutral individuals to prefer media content presenting a strong absorbing potential (e.g., quiz shows).
\n\n\tBuilding on theory of coping with sadness, it is hypothesized that sad individuals seek to view sad dramas to satisfy goals of gaining new perspectives and insight into their sad life events. Additionally, theories of catharsis and meta-mood experience that focus on favorable emotional benefits also predict preference for this genre.
\n\n\tH1c: Sad individuals will be more likely than neutral individuals to prefer sadness-inducing media (e.g., sad dramas).
\n\n\tFinally, if goals of sadness-regulation are affected by emotion-socialization processes, males and females would have distinct goals of sadness regulation and therefore, they would choose different media genres.
\n\n\tH2: While sad females will be more likely than sad males to prefer sadness-inducing media (consistent with H1c), sad males will be more likely than sad females to prefer either hedonically pleasant or absorbing content (consistent with H1a or H1b).
\n\n\tFinally, in order to determine theoretical processes that will significantly mediate the relationship between sadness and preference for sad dramas, a series of path analyses with multiple mediators will be conducted.
\n\n\tRQ1: Among theories of meta-mood, catharsis beliefs, downward social comparison, and positive re-interpretations, which mechanisms play a significant role(s) in mediating the relationship between sadness and preference for sadness-inducing media?
\n\n\tOne-hundred undergraduate students (60 females and 40 males) participated in the present study. A 2 (Affect: Sad or Neutral) X 3 (Media Genre: Sad Drama, Comedy, or Game Show) X 2 (Gender) mixed-design experiment with affect and gender as between-subjects factors and media genre as a within-subjects factor was conducted to examine sad viewers’ media choice. Anticipated reactions (i.e., both feelings and thoughts) when choosing each of the three media genres were also measured to explore theoretical mechanisms underlying each media choice. Anticipate feelings included Unhappy, Elated, Annoyed, and Calm feelings. Anticipated thoughts included Cognitive Learning, Catharsis Beliefs, Meta-Mood Experience, Distraction, and Entertainment.
\n\n\tA 2 (Affect: Sad or Neutral) X 2 (Gender) X 3 (Genre: Sad Drama, Comedy, or Game Show) repeated measures analysis of variance employing a multivariate approach was conducted to examine how relative media preferences vary as a function of manipulated affect and the participant’s gender. This analysis revealed a significant main effect for Genre, Wilks’ ? = .31, F (2, 95) = 106.76, p < .001, ?p2 = .69, showing that most participants preferred to watch comedies (M = 5.58a, SE = .12) over sad dramas (M = 3.90b, SE = .14) or game shows (M = 3.65b, SE = .14). However, the hypothesized expected interaction for Mood X Genre was not significant, Wilks’ ? = .98, F (2, 95) = 1.04, p = .36, ?p2 = .02.
\n\n\tAlthough these findings suggest that media choice does not vary as a function of manipulated affect (i.e., non-significant simple or total effects), sadness may indirectly affect individuals’ media choice through certain intervening variables. Therefore, mediation analyses for each genre employing bootstrapping procedures were conducted to assess specific indirect effects of sadness on media preference through anticipated four emotional and five cognitive responses respectively. Results showed that two specific indirect effects were significant with anticipated emotional responses as mediators: Sadness indirectly affected low levels of preference for comedies and game shows through anticipated unhappy feelings (estimated indirect effect = -.04, -.097 < CI < -.001) and anticipated annoyed feelings (estimated indirect effect = -.04, -.105 < CI < -.001) respectively. Additionally, one specific indirect effect was significant with anticipated cognitive responses as mediators: Sadness indirectly affected preference for sad dramas through anticipated learning outcomes (estimated indirect effect = .05, .0001 < CI < .134).
\n\n\tFindings suggest that although most sad viewers wanted to watch comedies over sad dramas or game shows, some of them preferred to watch sad dramas. In this case, their main goal of sadness regulation was to embrace sad feelings through transforming their pessimistic thoughts into positive ones, indicating that some sad viewers use media for purposes other than simple hedonism. Therefore, sad dramas with their powerful, informed, inspiring, and philosophical messages could be useful resources for such a cognitive coping strategy. Additionally, findings showing that some sad viewers avoided either comedies or game shows call for greater attention to theorize the nature of their underlying theoretical mechanisms. These avoidance tendencies may imply that media portrayals of celebrations and daily pleasure may not be desirable for some viewers and entertaining or distracting experiences from media consumption are not always functional.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31070" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-25T18:12:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33631, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "ba516441-abcc-411f-97e6-0342fa5ef0f1", "siteSettingsId": 33631, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21205, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Toward an understanding of the emotive structure", "slug": "toward-an-understanding-of-the-emotive-structure", "uri": "medialab/research-article/toward-an-understanding-of-the-emotive-structure", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:35-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:41:14-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33631, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/toward-an-understanding-of-the-emotive-structure", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/toward-an-understanding-of-the-emotive-structure", "subtitle": "and motivational systems and their influence on the processing of strategic health messages", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "22828" ], "studentResearchers": { "41543": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Changming Yan", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tIn this project, I tested and utilized two competing structural models of affect and motivational systems, the valence model and the functional model, to investigate the interaction of emotions (happiness, anger, and fear) and framing of health messages (gain and loss). Before a formative test of hypotheses, I conducted three pretests to identify a valid emotion induction method and to develop effective and credible framed messages. Pretest 1 found that the Montreal Affective Voices failed to induce the intended emotions. Results from Pretest 2 indicated that the Life Event Inventory Task successfully induced distinct and robust happiness, anger, and fear. Pretest 3 offered convincing evidence that the framed messages developed for this project were perceived to convey the intended frames and credible information. Using the Life Event Inventory Task and the pretested messages, Study 1 formally tested the hypotheses. First, compared to the valence model, the functional model better accounted for the relationship between emotions and motivational systems (behavioral approach system, BAS, and behavioral inhibition system, BIS). Second, as prescribed by the functional model, I found interactions of emotion and framing to significantly influence attitude. While gain frames produced more favorable attitudes for happy and angry participants, loss frames yielded more favorable attitudes among fearful individuals. I also conducted Study 2 to replicate Study 1, to test a causal model for the emotion-by-framing interaction, and to identify the dominant motivational system under different emotion-by-framing match conditions. Consistent with Study 1, the functional model was again supported. However, only partial support for the emotion-by-framing interaction on intention was found. Structural equation modeling results revealed that emotion and framing had indirect effects on attitude and intention via message related cognition and fear. Additional model comparisons indicated that BAS guided the persuasion process when the approach emotions (anger and happiness) coupled with gain frames; BIS predicted the process when inhibition emotion (fear) fitted with loss frames. I discussed both theoretical and practical implications at the end.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31070" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-21T05:38:30-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33623, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "f3d86d8b-b00b-4d84-a77b-b0d700550700", "siteSettingsId": 33623, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21203, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Sexual suggestiveness in online ads: Effects of objectification on opposite genders", "slug": "sexual-suggestiveness-in-online-ads-effects-of-objectification-on-opposite", "uri": "medialab/research-article/sexual-suggestiveness-in-online-ads-effects-of-objectification-on-opposite", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:33-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:12:22-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33623, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/sexual-suggestiveness-in-online-ads-effects-of-objectification-on-opposite", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/sexual-suggestiveness-in-online-ads-effects-of-objectification-on-opposite", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41536": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sriram Kalyanaraman", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41537": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Michael Redding", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41538": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jason Steele", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tKalyanaraman, S., Steele, J., & Sundar S. S. (2000, June). Communicating objectification: Effects of sexually suggestive advertisements. Paper presented to the Mass Communication Division at the 50th annual conference of the International Communication Association (ICA), Acapulco, Mexico.
\n\n\tCurrent research in the fields of advertising and media effects suggests that men and women react differently to the use of sexual images in advertising campaigns. However, the bulk of the research regarding sexual images in advertising is concerned with marketing issues, such as consumer behavior, product recall and persuausive effectiveness. Little research is aimed at exploring the effects of sexual images in advertising on the perception of the model by the viewer. Also, research concerning the effects of sexual images with male models has largely been ignored. The present investigation examines the relationship between exposure to sexually suggestive mainstream magazine advertisements and the objectification of the gender of the model. Specifically, Study 1 looks at female objectification, while Study 2 examines male objectification.
\n\n\tA summary of research evidence suggests that sexually explicit materials are seen as objectifying and dehumanizing women, portraying women as pandering to men's sexual desires, and encouraging sexual and social suppression of and violence toward women. This leads to the following hypothesis:
\n\n\tH1: Males exposed to sexually suggestive ads featuring female models will indulge in greater objectification of women than those exposed to non-suggestive ads.
\n\n\tSome studies have also shown that women do not indulge in self-objectification after exposure to sexually suggestive material. This leads to the following hypothesis:
\n\n\tH2a: Females exposed to sexually suggestive ads featuring female models will show lesser acceptance of objectification of women than those exposed to non-suggestive ads.
\n\n\tOn the other hand, certain other scholars also suggest that women tend to consider themselves as sex objects in their quest to attain ideal female beauty. This gives rise to the following hypothesis:
\n\n\tH2b: Females exposed to sexually suggestive ads featuring female models will show greater acceptance of objectification of women than those exposed to non-suggestive ads.
\n\n\tA considerable body of research also suggests that males tend to indulge in a greater degree of objectification than females. This leads to the following hypothesis:
\n\n\tH3: Across conditions, males will have significantly higher scores of objectification than females.
\n\n\tForty-five participants took part in a 2 (Sexually suggestive ads vs. non-suggestive ads) X 2 (male subjects vs. female subjects) experiment. Participants in both conditions viewed ten ads for different products. The sexually suggestive condition had female models in suggestive poses
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-04-20_at_10.40.09_PM.png\")
\n\twhile the non-suggestive condition featured female models in non-suggestive positions.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tAfter they had finished viewing the ads, subjects were asked to fill out a questionnaire pertaining to measures of female objectification.
\n\n\tThe dependent variable of objectification was divided into three factors labeled 'Sexual Objectification,' 'Mediated Objectification,' and 'Voyeurism.'
\n\n\tH1: Supported. Males exposed to suggestive ads expressed a greater propensity to look at fashion magazines and television shows for the female models rather than the content/designs ('Mediated Objectification'). Furthermore, a significant two-way interaction between gender and suggestiveness was recorded for the Voyeurism index such that male subjects tended to approve of voyeuristic behavior after exposure to suggestive ads than after exposure to non-suggestive ads.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tH2a: Not supported.
\n\n\tH2b: Partially supported. Females exposed to suggestive ads expressed greater agreement to look at fashion magazines and television shows for the female models rather than the content/designs ('Mediated Objectification').
\n\n\tH3: Supported. Males tended to perceive women as sex objects, irrespective of the suggestiveness condition, whereas females were significantly less approving of such objectification. Furthermore, males also were significantly more prone to assume the role of 'Peeping Tom,' compared to females, who did not approve of such voyeuristic behavior.
\n\n\tSTUDY 2
\n\tStudy 2 was conducted to determine whether male objectification was similar to female objectification. We also hoped to glean what theoretical mechanisms could have been operating to explain some of the findings from Study 1. Study 2 was similar to Study 1 except that instead of female models, ten ads featuring male models in both sexually suggestive and non-suggestive positions were used as stimulus material.
\n\t
\n\n\tThe dependent variable of objectification was divided into three factors labeled 'Sexual Objectification,' 'Mediated Objectification,' and 'Promiscuity.' Even though the same questinnaire was employed, it was seen that only 'Mediated Objectification' comprised the same measures as in Study 1. The results reveal main effects for gender on both 'Sexual Objectification' and 'Promiscuity,' such that males tended to perecive themselves as sex objects (compared to females). Furthermore, they also had a significantly higher tendency to approve of promiscuous behavior, compared to females.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tThe findings from the two studies suggest that even exposure to seemingly innocuous sexually suggestive ads can lead to disturbing antifemale sentiments such as objectification. An interesting observation was the finding that the constructs of male and female objectification are conceptually distinct. The null findings for 'Mediated Objectification' in Study 2 also suggests the possible operation of the availability heuristic in Study 1. While the effects observed here pertain to short-term effects only, future research will benefit by examining the effects of prolonged exposure to sexually suggestive material.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31058", "31068", "31073" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-21T05:36:49-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33619, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "6ae77e42-b6d3-415f-a1a6-7fbe0c4ac603", "siteSettingsId": 33619, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21201, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Perceptual verification of racial homogenization in advertising models", "slug": "perceptual-verification-of-racial-homogenization-in-advertising-models", "uri": "medialab/research-article/perceptual-verification-of-racial-homogenization-in-advertising-models", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:32-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:12:21-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33619, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/perceptual-verification-of-racial-homogenization-in-advertising-models", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/perceptual-verification-of-racial-homogenization-in-advertising-models", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41533": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Amanda M. Frederick", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tRacial homogenization is a common phenomenon in advertising and direct mail marketing. While marketers today are probably more likely to use minorities in ads and catalogues, the important point of discussion is the degree to which these models are perceived as minorities. For example, even when black models are used, light-skinned blacks predominate. Some marketers explain this by suggesting that most people can identify with a light-skinned black model, but not with a dark-skinned black model. Such a practice could lead to racial homogenization such that the skin tones of white and black models are virtually indistinguishable. This study was designed to assess whether readers perceive such homogenization by wrongly identifying models of minority races as Caucasians. Specifically, it examines the relationship between presence/absence of a model's face and accuracy of identification of the race of the model.
\n\n\tIt was hypothesized that participants viewing a model without seeing her face (as compared to participants viewing the same model with her face intact) will be less accurate in identifying the black models as black, and more prone to categorize them as white models.
\n\n\tEighty-two participants were randomly assigned to one of two experimental conditions: a catalog with models' faces present or absent. Pictures of models from Victoria's Secret catalog were chosen since the catalog is a lingerie catalog and shows a lot of skin, allowing for ideal viewing of skin tone. Depending on the condition they were in, participants either saw the models with faces or without faces. All participants filled out a questionnaire while looking at the models' pictures. In addition to questions on attractiveness and prior exposure to the catalog, participants were also asked to guess the race of each model.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-04-20_at_10.36.53_PM.png\")
\n\tThe models-with-faces condition had significantly higher scores on accuracy than the models-without-faces condition, thus supporting the hypothesis.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/racial3.jpg\")
\n\tIn this study, the presence or absence of facial cues was seen to affect perceived attractiveness and ethnic background. The findings of this study correlate with the findings of current research on the psychological importance of facial cues which support the notion of \"identity-specific semantic code.\" By providing perceptual verification of racial homogenization in lingerie ads, this study suggests that minority models in popular media are perhaps being \"whitewashed\" in order to mask their real racial identity.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31058", "31068", "31073" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-21T05:24:04-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33613, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "70214fc5-8932-45bc-be4c-ae3fa247643a", "siteSettingsId": 33613, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21199, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "So you use Whisper? Exploring the Psychological Effects of Anonymous Social Networking Application", "slug": "so-you-use-whisper-exploring-the-psychological-effects-of-anonymous-social", "uri": "medialab/research-article/so-you-use-whisper-exploring-the-psychological-effects-of-anonymous-social", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:31-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:12:19-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33613, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/so-you-use-whisper-exploring-the-psychological-effects-of-anonymous-social", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/so-you-use-whisper-exploring-the-psychological-effects-of-anonymous-social", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41528": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Ruoxu Wang", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41529": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Dong Chen", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tAnonymous social networking applications such as Whisper and YikYak are quite popular nowadays. An online survey (N = 147) explored the psychological effects of using Whisper. Results showed that people’s liking toward the anonymity affordance and their level of perceived anonymity affordance could positively predict recovery, catharsis and autonomy. In addition, people with low communication competence tend to feel a higher level of autonomy when they really like the anonymity feature of Whisper.
\n\n\tR1a: When using Whisper, how does a user’s liking toward anonymity affordance influence his/her level of recovery, catharsis and autonomy?
\n\tR1b: When using Whisper, how does a user’s perceived level of anonymity affordance influence his/her level of recovery, catharsis, and autonomy?
\n\tRQ2a - d: When using Whisper, does a user’s level of a) communication apprehension, b) communication competence, c) collective self esteem, and d) psychological empowerment moderate the effects of liking towards anonymity affordance and user’s level of recovery, catharsis, and autonomy?
\n\tRQ3a - d: When using Whisper, does a user’s level of a) communication apprehension, b) communication competence, c) collective self esteem, and d) psychological empowerment moderate the effects of perceived level of anonymity affordance and user’s level of recovery, catharsis, and autonomy?
\n\tAn online survey was conducted among 147 students recruited from an U.S. university. All participants gave their consent before they completed the 20-minute survey and were awarded with extra credits for their participation.
\n\n\tRQ1 was raised to see if liking toward anonymity affordance would influence people’s level of recovery, catharsis, and autonomy when using Whisper. A simple linear regression was calculated to predict recovery based on liking toward anonymity affordance. A significant regression equation was found, F (1, 145) = 13.93, p < .001, with an R2 of .09. Participants’ recovery level equals to 2.48 + .32 (liking toward anonymity affordance) when liking toward anonymity affordance is measured in how much do you like the anonymity affordance in Whisper. Autonomy increased .32 when liking toward anonymity affordance increased.
\n\n\t
\n\tA simple linear regression was calculated to predict catharsis based on liking toward anonymity affordance. A significant regression equation was found, F (1, 145) = 6.78, p < .05, with an R2 of .05. Participants’ level of catharsis is equal to 2.75 + .22 (liking toward anonymity affordance) when liking toward anonymity affordance is measured in how much do you like the anonymity affordance in Whisper. Catharsis increased .22 when liking toward anonymity affordance increased.
\n\t
\n\tA simple linear regression was calculated to predict autonomy based on liking toward anonymity affordance. A significant regression equation was found, F (1, 145) = 5.46, p < .05, with an R2 of .04. Participants’ level of autonomy is equal to 3.25 + .22 (liking toward anonymity affordance) when liking toward anonymity affordance is measured in how much do you like the anonymity affordance in Whisper. Autonomy increased .22 when liking toward anonymity affordance increased.
\n\t
\n\tRQ2 was raised to see if perceived level of anonymity affordance would influence their level of recovery, catharsis and autonomy when using Whisper. A simple linear regression was calculated to predict recovery based on level of perceived anonymity affordance. A significant regression equation was found, F (1, 145) = 21.49, p < .001, with an R2 of .13. Participants’ level of recovery is equal to 2.24 + .35 (perceived level of anonymity affordance) when perceived level of anonymity affordance is measured in how anonymous do you perceive the anonymity affordance in Whisper. Recovery increased .35 when perceived level of anonymity affordance increased.
\n\t
\n\tA simple linear regression was calculated to predict catharsis based on level of perceived anonymity affordance. A significant regression equation was found, F (1, 145) = 21.49, p < .001, with an R2 of .13. Participants’ level of catharsis is equal to 2.65 + .23 (perceived level of anonymity affordance) when perceived level of anonymity affordance is measured in how anonymous do you perceive the anonymity affordance in Whisper. Catharsis increased .23 when perceived level of anonymity affordance increased.
\n\t
\n\tA simple linear regression was calculated to predict autonomy based on level of perceived anonymity affordance. A significant regression equation was found, F (1, 145) = 10.35, p < .01, with an R2 of .07. Participants’ level of autonomy is equal to 2.95 + .27 (perceived level of anonymity affordance) when perceived level of anonymity affordance is measured in how anonymous do you perceive the anonymity affordance in Whisper. Autonomy increased .27 when perceived level of anonymity affordance increased.
\n\tTo answer RQ2a-d and RQ3a-d, a series of hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted. Results showed that communication competence was a significant moderator between perceived level of anonymity affordance and autonomy, ΔR2 = .04, F (3, 143) = 5.49, p < .01. As shown in Figure 1, for people with low communication competence, the more they perceive the level of anonymity affordance of Whisper, the more autonomy they will receive when using Whisper. For people with low or average level of communication competence, how they perceive the level of anonymity affordance of Whisper does not really impact their feeling of autonomy.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-04-20_at_10.27.47_PM.png\")
\n\tThe popularity of anonymous social networking applications triggered our interests in examining people’s psychological needs in using these new social network sites. The current study revealed people’s psychological needs pertaining to recovery, catharsis, and autonomy were the psychological outcomes of using anonymous social networking application. These psychological outcomes were significantly linked with people’s liking toward anonymity affordance and their level of perceived anonymity affordance. Psychological traits such as communication competence could moderate the effects of one’s level of perceived anonymity affordance and autonomy.
\n\n\t
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31063" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-21T05:14:44-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33605, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "8b99e48b-a4b7-4b9d-9527-3fa1f7b9dad5", "siteSettingsId": 33605, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21197, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Why do we Pin? New Gratifications explain Unique Activities in Pinterest", "slug": "why-do-we-pin-new-gratifications-explain-unique-activities-in-pinterest", "uri": "medialab/research-article/why-do-we-pin-new-gratifications-explain-unique-activities-in-pinterest", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:29-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:12:17-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33605, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/why-do-we-pin-new-gratifications-explain-unique-activities-in-pinterest", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/why-do-we-pin-new-gratifications-explain-unique-activities-in-pinterest", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41521": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Ruoxu Wang", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41522": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Fan Yang", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41523": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Saijing Zheng", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis study examined why people use Pinterest from the perspective of uses and gratifications. Specifically, relationships among four technological affordances (MAIN model) and ten different Pinterest behaviors were examined. Findings of this study provided evidence for MAIN model being used as a new gratification scale to study new media uses.
\n\n\tRQ: What are the relationships between motives and Pinterest using behaviors? Specifically, what motives predict the use of 1) pinning, 2) liking, 3) commenting, 4) following 5) creating a board, 6) browsing different categories, 7) searching, 8) checking notifications, 9) sharing, and 10) inviting other to create on one’s own board?
\n\n\tAn online survey was conducted in a major university in northeastern United States based on institutional review board (IRB) approval. Of the 113 participants, average age is 20.69 (SD = 1.01). More females (N = 66, 58.4%) than males (N = 47, 41.6%) participated in the study. The independent variables (IVs) are the four technological affordances of MAIN model: modality, agency, interactivity, and navigability. The dependent variables (DVs) are ten different Pinterest behaviors: pinning, liking, commenting, following, creating a board, browsing different categories, searching, checking notifications, sharing, and inviting others to pin the board I create. JMP 11 was used for analyzing descriptive and inferential statistics.
\n![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-04-20_at_10.18.01_PM.png\")
\n\tThe repertoire of affordances in Pinterest caters to a wide array of user gratifications, thus explaining the widespread appeal of this social-media platform. The gratifications discovered in this study—ranging from coolness to scaffolding—are far more nuanced and informative than the broad “umbrella” gratifications typically identified by traditional uses-and-gratifications studies, such as information-seeking and passing time. Future research on uses of new and emergent media would do well to probe deeper and identify specific gratifications, as we have done here, in order to better understand the psychological appeal as well as behavioral adoption of those media.
\n\n\t
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31063" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-21T05:03:23-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33597, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "2e8ba482-f471-48d3-80a9-039b13db1546", "siteSettingsId": 33597, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21195, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Real or enhanced? A closer look into the effects of photo manipulation", "slug": "real-or-enhanced-a-closer-look-into-the-effects-of-photo-manipulation", "uri": "medialab/research-article/real-or-enhanced-a-closer-look-into-the-effects-of-photo-manipulation", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:28-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:12:14-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33597, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/real-or-enhanced-a-closer-look-into-the-effects-of-photo-manipulation", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/real-or-enhanced-a-closer-look-into-the-effects-of-photo-manipulation", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41514": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Anna Allsop", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41515": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Laura M. Caldwell", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41516": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Lauren J. DeCarvalho", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tIt has been argued that the use of digital manipulation in popular media increases drive for thinness and decreases women’s sense of empowerment. This study examines the effects of image alteration on these dependent variables, using the Social Comparison Theory as a framework.
\n\n\tRQ1: For women, controlling for major, gender and class standing, what is the relationship between the presence/absence of image alterations, focusing on the entire body/focusing on the face and one’s sense of empowerment?
\n\t
\n\tRQ2: For women, controlling for major, gender and class standing, what is the relationship between the presence/absence of image alterations, focusing on the entire body/focusing on the face and one’s drive for thinness?
\n\tRQ3: For women, controlling for major, gender and class standing, what is the relationship between the presence/absence of image alterations, focusing on the entire body/focusing on the face and one’s perceived reality?
\n\n\tH1: Participants in manipulated image conditions will score lower on empowerment measures compared to those in non-manipulated image conditions.
\n\n\tH2: Participants in manipulated image conditions will have a higher drive for thinness compared to those in non-manipulated image conditions.
\n\n\tH3: Participants in manipulated image conditions and non-manipulated conditions will perceive reality differently.
\n\n\tIn a randomized fashion, 98 female Penn State students (both undergraduate and graduate) were asked to view one of four conditions: manipulated body images; non-manipulated body images; manipulated face images; and non-manipulated face images. They were then asked to respond to a 25-item questionnaire using scales that measured empowerment, drive for thinness, and perceived reality.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-04-20_at_10.04.45_PM.png\")
\n\tManipulated Body Image/Non-manipulated Body Image
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-04-20_at_10.04.51_PM.png\")
\n\tManipulated Face Image/Non-Manipulated Face Image
\n\n\tRQ1: Partially answered through the findings that partially support H1.
\n\n\tRQ2: There was no evidence to answer this RQ due to the lack of support for H2.
\n\t
\n\tRQ3: Partially supported through the findings that partially support H3.
\n\tH1: Partially supported. In terms of measuring empowerment, female participants who viewed manipulated body images were more likely to report a higher level of empowerment than those who viewed manipulated face images. In comparison, female participants who viewed non-manipulated body images were less likely to report a higher degree of empowerment than those who viewed non-manipulated face images.
\n\n\tH2: Not supported by the findings of the study.
\n\n\tH3: Partially supported. When assessing two dimensions of perceived reality as a dependent variable, specifically the perceived realness of models in ads and the perceived unimportance of attractiveness, female participants who viewed non-manipulated images were more likely to report that the models in the ads appeared to be real than those who viewed manipulated images. Additionally, female participants who viewed manipulated body images were more likely to report that attractiveness is unimportant than those who viewed manipulated face images, whereas participants who received non-manipulated body images were less likely to report that attractiveness is unimportant, than those who received non-manipulated face images.
\n\n\tThe findings from this study suggest that the locus of manipulation (i.e. body or face) does play a role in contributing to the effects of image alteration on dimensions of empowerment and perceived reality. Specifically, in terms of these two dependent variables, the results of this study has revealed that participants who viewed either manipulated body images or non-manipulated face images were more likely to report a higher level of empowerment, than those who viewed their respective counterpart conditions (e.g. non-manipulated body images or manipulated face images). In consistency with this finding, participants who were exposed to these two particular conditions, either manipulated body images or non-manipulated face images, were more likely to report that attractiveness was not an important factor, than those who viewed non-manipulated body images or manipulated face images.
\n\n\tWhile there was no support for the effects of image alteration or the locus of manipulation on one’s drive for thinness, the findings of this study show that the locus of manipulation and the presence/absence of image alterations can separately affect one’s perceived reality, specifically one’s perceived realness of models from the ads. Participants who viewed body images were more likely to report that the models from the ads looked real, than those who viewed face images. Additionally, participants who viewed non-manipulated conditions were more likely to report that the models from the ads looked real, than those who viewed manipulated conditions. This finding indicates that participants were able to recognize when models’ faces or bodies were altered (i.e. Photoshopped), thereby looking abnormally perfect in the eyes of the average female.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31058", "31068", "31073" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-21T04:50:37-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33593, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "e2123d95-d1c7-43e0-b31b-895672a0cb10", "siteSettingsId": 33593, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21193, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Construction of beauty as a measure of self-worth among college females:", "slug": "construction-of-beauty-as-a-measure-of-self-worth-among-college-females", "uri": "medialab/research-article/construction-of-beauty-as-a-measure-of-self-worth-among-college-females", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:27-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:12:13-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33593, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/construction-of-beauty-as-a-measure-of-self-worth-among-college-females", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/construction-of-beauty-as-a-measure-of-self-worth-among-college-females", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41511": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Erin M. Campbell", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tPast research indicates that exposure to thin models results in lower self-esteem and decreased weight satisfaction, and to increased depression, guilt, shame, stress, insecurity and body dissatisfaction. In addition, the increase in the number of eating disorders over the last several decades has coincided with a decrease in women's ideal body weight as portrayed by the media. The mass media operate as important influences on eating disorder behavior through their impact on values, norms, and aesthetic standards embraced by society. The relationship between fashion magazine exposure and body dissatisfaction and eating disorders has been frequently replicated. The present study attempts to shed new light on the belief that beauty is the most important measure in self-evaluation. Specifically, it examines the relationship between fashion magazine exposure and the belief that beauty is a measure of self-worth.
\n\n\tBased on theoretical perspectives in the literature on mere exposure effects, identification, social comparison, social construction of reality, and cultivation effects, as well as prior research about media effects on body dissatisfaction, the following hypotheses were forwarded:
\n\n\tH1a: Female college students who have high levels of exposure to fashion magazines will exhibit higher degrees of liking for ultra-thin fashion models than will female college students with low levels of fashion magazine exposure.
\n\n\tH1b: Female college students who have high levels of exposure to fashion magazines will exhibit higher degrees of affinity toward the ultra-thin beauty standard than will female college students with low levels of fashion magazine exposure.
\n\n\tH2: Female college students who have high levels of exposure to fashion magazines will be less satisfied with their personal physical appearances than will female college students with low levels of fashion magazine exposure.
\n\n\tH3: Among college women, those with high rates of exposure to fashion magazines will be more blind to non-body aspects of themselves than will women with low rates of exposure to fashion magazines.
\n\n\tH4: Among college women, there is a direct relationship between exposure to fashion magazines and the belief that women's self-worth is measured by beauty (e.g., heavy, as opposed to light, readers are more likely to espouse this view).
\n\n\tOne hundred and four female students were administered a survey. Respondents were selected by systematically sampling every third female student at selected locations on campus. The first section of the survey measured respondents' attitudes toward their bodies. The second portion of the survey was used to measure satisfaction with personal physical appearance as well as affinity toward the ultra-thin beauty standard. Other measures pertained to global self-esteem, self-worth measures, and appearance apprehension. In addition, four questions were used to operationalize the independent variable, fashion magazine exposure.
\n\n\tH1a: Supported. Respondents with high levels of exposure to fashion magazines exhibited significantly higher degrees of liking for ultra-thin fashion models than did those respondents with low levels of fashion magazine exposure.
\n\n\tH1b: Supported. Respondents with high levels of exposure to fashion magazines exhibited significantly higher degrees of affinity toward the ultra-thin beauty standard than did those respondents with low levels of fashion magazine exposure.
\n\n\tH2: Supported. Respondents with high levels of exposure to fashion magazines were less satisfied with their personal physical appearances than were respondents with low levels of fashion magazine exposure.
\n\n\tH3: Partially supported. Among respondents, those with high rates of exposure to fashion magazines tended to be more blind to non-body aspects of themselves than those respondents with low rates of exposure to fashion magazines. However, this finding was only seen on one of the indices.
\n\n\tH4: Supported. The results revealed that fashion magazine exposure was a significant predictor of the belief that beauty is a measure of self-worth.
\n\tH1: Not supported.
\n\tFindings from this study offer some interesting insights into effects of fashion magazine exposure on the belief that beauty is a measure of self-worth among college females. The findings suggest that advertisers and marketers, as well as the publishing and fashion industries, should be more cognizant of their obligations related to social responsibility. Specifically, advertisers may avoid contributing to negative effects upon readers by not using images of ultra-thin models in their campaigns. Furthermore, the publishing and fashion industries may employ models of different sizes to better represent the diversity of female bodies.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31058", "31068", "31073" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-21T04:47:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33589, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "8a9e5d00-f9a9-434c-9dd6-77188f4fa1e0", "siteSettingsId": 33589, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21191, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Relationships among sexually suggestive advertising, advertising evaluations,", "slug": "relationships-among-sexually-suggestive-advertising-advertising-evaluations", "uri": "medialab/research-article/relationships-among-sexually-suggestive-advertising-advertising-evaluations", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:26-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:42:03-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33589, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/relationships-among-sexually-suggestive-advertising-advertising-evaluations", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/relationships-among-sexually-suggestive-advertising-advertising-evaluations", "subtitle": "body attitudes, and self-esteem in female college students", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41508": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Ryan O'Rourke", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tWhen considering the effects of advertising and media on society, a substantial amount of discussion focuses upon advertising's effects upon women. Frequently, the advertising industry is accused of misconduct since, by cultivating unrealistic feelings of inferiority in the quest for the \"ideal beauty,\" it allegedly perpetuates the myth that women are inferior to men, and increases the perception of women as sex objects. This study examines the influence of sexually suggestive advertisements on body image, self-esteem, and enjoyment, as well as behavioral decisions, of women.
\n\n\tCultivation theory suggests that advertising acts within the popular media to reinforce and maintain stereotypical perceptions of women. Interpellation theory suggests that as women identify with stereotypical images of other women in the media, they compare themselves to these images. Since most women do not conform to the ideal image portrayed in such sexually suggestive ads, such comparisons may have an effect upon a woman's self-esteem/concept. Based on the above theories, as well as prior research findings, the following hypotheses were generated:
\n\n\tH1: Women exposed to sexually suggestive advertisements will experience lower rates of body satisfaction than women exposed to non-suggestive advertisements.
\n\n\tH2: Women exposed to sexually suggestive advertisements will experience lower rates of self-esteem than women exposed to non-suggestive advertisements.
\n\n\tH3a: Women will experience less enjoyment for the sexually suggestive advertisements.
\n\n\tH3b: Women will indicate that they would be more likely to purchase products advertised in the non-suggestive advertisements.
\n\n\tThirty participants were assigned to one of two experimental conditions in a between-subjects experiment. Before exposure to the stimuli, participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire related to their magazine purchasing behaviors and reading habits. After filling out the questionnaire, half the participants viewed sexually suggestive ads while the other half viewed non-suggestive ads. After exposure, participants were asked to fill out two more questionnaires pertaining to quality and effectiveness of the ads as well as measures of self-esteem and body satisfaction.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-04-20_at_9.50.09_PM.png\")
\n\tH1: Not supported. Sexual suggestiveness in advertising had no effect on a woman's perception of her own body.
\n\n\tH2: Partially supported. After viewing the sexually suggestive ads, women thought that others would think significantly less of them and have lower impressions of them than did the women who viewed the non-suggestive ads.
\n\n\tH3a: Not supported. There were no significant differences between sexually suggestive ads and non-suggestive ads in terms of liking, enjoyment, interest etc.
\n\n\tH3b: Disconfirmed. Women reported that they would be more likely to purchase products advertised in a sexually suggestive manner compared to products advertised in a non-suggestive manner.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-04-20_at_9.49.40_PM.png\")
\n\tThe unexpected findings from this study suggest that popular criticism re. portrayal of women in advertising is probably unfair. This study suggests that sexually suggestive advertising itself has little harmful effects. If anything, it seems to have positive conative effects, especially on female consumers.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31058", "31068", "31073" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-21T04:44:02-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33585, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "e47ecacf-5e34-4966-831d-5b1364c7c088", "siteSettingsId": 33585, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21189, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Social cognition and anti-drug psa effects on adolescent attitudes", "slug": "social-cognition-and-anti-drug-psa-effects-on-adolescent-attitudes", "uri": "medialab/research-article/social-cognition-and-anti-drug-psa-effects-on-adolescent-attitudes", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:25-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:12:10-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33585, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/social-cognition-and-anti-drug-psa-effects-on-adolescent-attitudes", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/social-cognition-and-anti-drug-psa-effects-on-adolescent-attitudes", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41505": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Carson B Wagner", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tWagner, C. B., & Sundar, S. S. (1999, May). The curiosity arousing function of anti-drug PSAs. Paper presented to the Health Communication Division at the 49th annual conference of the International Communication Association (ICA), San Francisco.
\n\n\tA summary of this study was presented at a Subcommittee Hearing in the U.S. House of Representatives. Click here to download our Statement at the hearing.
\n\n\tThe recently formed alliance between the U.S. government and the Partnership for a Drug-Free America (PDFA) has placed the PDFA's advertising budget among the top fifteen currently running ad campaigns in the country. Past research has shown that anti-drug Public Service Announcements (PSAs) such as those distributed by the PDFA reach eighty-three percent of adolescents, increase anti-drug attitudes, and have a ninety-percent recall rate, yet tracking studies show that adolescent drug use has increased since 1991. Examined together the evidence is certainly puzzling, because if most adolescents have seen and can recall anti-drug PSAs and if PSAs normally increase anti-drug attitudes, then usage rates should be declining. However, this is not the case. These contradictory facts shed light on the need for new directions in anti-drug PSA research, and inspired the current research. In other words, perhaps by looking beyond traditionally studied anti-drug attitudes to cognitive responses such as curiosity which might provoke adolescents to experiment with drugs, we might begin to explain this ironic relationship.
\n\n\tTwo media-related phenomena, perception of social norms and curiosity, were examined to determine the relationship between these cognitive responses and exposure to anti-drug PSAs. Based on priming theory and information-gap perspective, the following hypotheses were generated:
\n\n\tH1: Subjects who view anti-drug PSAs will estimate the prevalence of adolescent drug use to be greater than control group subjects.
\n\n\tH2: Subjects shown anti-drug PSAs will be more curious about illicit drugs than subjects in the control condition.
\n\n\tH3: For all subjects, estimates of adolescent drug use prevalence will predict level of curiosity.
\n\n\tSixty-five participants took part in a between-participants experiment involving two conditions. Participants in the control condition saw an unaltered version of a prime-time television program (The Simpsons). Participants in the treatment condition saw the same program but with four PDFA anti-drug PSAs edited into the commercial breaks. Following exposure, participants in both conditions filled out an identical questionnaire eliciting, among other things, their level of curiosity and perceptions of the prevalence of drug use among their peers
\n\n\tH1: Partially Supported. Treatment participants estimated a significantly higher percentage of high school students to have used marijuana at least once in the past year and at least once in the past month as compared to control participants.
\n\n\tH2: Supported. Treatment participants were significantly more curious about using marijuana as compared to control participants.
\n\n\tH3: Not supported. For all participants, neither estimates of the percentage of high school students who have used marijuana in the last year nor estimates for the percentage of users in the last month predicted curiosity.
\n\n\tThe results of the study showed that those programs that contained anti-drug PSAs had higher estimates of illicit drug use by peers and higher curiosity toward illicit drug use. The results of this study indicate that the mere mention of the topic in anti-drug PSAs inherently works to increase estimations of societal prevalence. This suggests the existence of a paradoxical relationship between mass mediated messages and viewers' perceptions of illicit drug use. Perhaps, such messages can promote abstinence more effectively by providing examples of alternative activities, rather than merely mentioning what one should refrain from.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31058", "31068", "31073" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-21T04:42:41-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33575, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "1fd017de-51ca-4c70-894b-900cb1486dbe", "siteSettingsId": 33575, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21187, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Advertising effects on alcohol consumption among college students", "slug": "advertising-effects-on-alcohol-consumption-among-college-students", "uri": "medialab/research-article/advertising-effects-on-alcohol-consumption-among-college-students", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:23-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:12:08-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33575, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/advertising-effects-on-alcohol-consumption-among-college-students", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/advertising-effects-on-alcohol-consumption-among-college-students", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41496": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jennifer Lange", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41497": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Susan Pryor", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41498": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Kandi Reed", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41499": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jennifer Risser", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tLange, J. G., Pryor, S. M., & Reed, K. M. (1998, April). Alcohol advertising and consumption. Paper presented at the 12th National Conference on Undergraduate Research (NCUR), Salisbury, MD.
\n\n\tThe issue of alcohol advertising and its relation to alcohol consumption has always been a topic of heated discussion and debate in the communications industry. The controversy has spread worldwide with advocates both for and against alcohol advertising. In addition to environmental influences, alcohol advertising is an important source through which many young people learn about alcohol. Past research has generally indicated either a positive correlation between advertising and consumption or has found no significant relationship between the two. This study seeks to extend research in this domain by examining the extent to which a person's familiarity with advertising affects their behavior patterns. Specifically, it seeks to determine the relationship between familiarity with alcohol advertising and amount and frequency of alcohol consumed.
\n\n\tA total of one hundred respondents were selected from a systematic random sample. Each respondent was given a survey which had items pertaining to both amount and frequency of alcohol consumption. Upon completion of the survey, the respondents were asked to rate their familiarity with a series of 20 alcohol advertisements. The respondents were asked to specifically rank familiarity with the ad itself and not the product or campaign.
\n\n\tThere was a significant postive correlation between ad familiarity and alcohol consumption such that respondents who were more familiar with the ads also consumed significantly more alcohol than those respondents who were not as familiar with the ads.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/alcohol4.jpg\")
\n\tOverall, the results from this study suggest that there is a positive correlation between familiarity with alcohol advertisements and consumption of alcohol. The study also found some other interesting results. Specifically, those who watch more sports programs on television consumed more alcohol than those who did not watch as many sports programs. Also, gender seems to have a significant role as far as familiarity with alcohol ads is concerned, since the familiarity scores were significantly higher for males than for females.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31058", "31068", "31073" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-21T04:40:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33571, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "55f4137d-86d1-4cb2-a420-c9350e9456e9", "siteSettingsId": 33571, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21185, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Effects of magazine advertisements on college females' drive", "slug": "effects-of-magazine-advertisements-on-college-females-drive", "uri": "medialab/research-article/effects-of-magazine-advertisements-on-college-females-drive", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:22-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:42:37-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33571, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/effects-of-magazine-advertisements-on-college-females-drive", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/effects-of-magazine-advertisements-on-college-females-drive", "subtitle": "for thinness, self-esteem, and body satisfaction", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41493": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Carrie L. Bennett", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tPrevious research on the relationship between media consumption and body image disturbance (body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness) and self-esteem suggests that women who internalize, or accept the thin ideal presented in the media, develop cognitive dissonance between actuality and fantasy. Yet, other research indicates women protect body image disturbance and self-esteem by regarding the beauty of models in advertisements as unrealistic. The purpose of this study is to examine if popular magazine advertisements can affect college females’ feelings and perceptions of self.
\n\n\tBased on social comparison theory (i.e., people are compelled to judge their own opinions and abilities by making social evaluations with other people), we proposed three hypotheses, in order to test for the two conflicting directions:
\n\n\tH1: Participants exposed to ideal body images will experience a higher drive for thinness, lower self-esteem, and greater body dissatisfaction compared to participants who view images of counter-ideal bodies.
\n\n\tH2: The greater the level of internalization of ideal advertisements, the higher the drive for thinness, and lower the self-esteem and body satisfaction.
\n\n\tH3: Discounting for the beauty of the model will be will be negatively associated with drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction, and positively associated with self-esteem.
\n\n\tSixty undergraduate female students were randomly assigned to one of three conditions in a between-subjects experiment. First, ten advertisements were selected from popular magazines such as Cosmopolitan, Glamour and Maxim. Subsequently, a computer program was used to modify the female bodies to create the three conditions for the study: ideal body image advertisements, counter ideal body image advertisements and no body image advertisements (female body was removed). The dependent variables (drive for thinness, self-esteem and body dissatisfaction) were included in a questionnaire administered to participants immediately after participants’ exposure to the advertisements.
\n\n\tA factor analysis of the dependent measures scales items yielded five factors labeled “negative self-perception,” “body dissatisfaction,” “commitment to thinness,” “self-esteem,” and “internalization.”
\n\n\tH1: Partially supported. Consistent with H1, participants exposed to ideal images reported greater negative self-perception than those who were exposed to counter ideal images. In addition, those who viewed the ideal advertisements reported higher body dissatisfaction compared to those who saw counter ideal body images. However, inconsistent with H1, participants who viewed the images of the ideal body did not express a significantly different commitment to thinness than those who viewed images of the counter ideal body. In addition, participants who saw ideal advertising images did not express a significantly different level of self-esteem than those who saw the counter ideal advertising images.
\n\n\tH2: Partially supported. Internalization had a main effect on both negative self-perception and body dissatisfaction, such that internalization led to more negative self-perception and body dissatisfaction than non-internalization. Internalization also had main effects on commitment to thinness and on self-esteem.
\n\n\tH3: Supported. Commitment to thinness, body dissatisfaction and negative self-perception were positively related to internalization. Self-esteem was negatively related to internalization, such that as internalization increased, self-esteem decreased.
\n\n\tThis study represents an attempt to reconcile the differing research findings on body image disturbance. Results from this study found evidence that advertising does adversely influence body dissatisfaction and negative self-perceptions. It also evidenced that when participants internalized the ideal advertisements, they experienced significantly higher body dissatisfaction, and negative self-perception than those who discount. Since, body image disturbance is a prevalent phenomenon in Western society and the consequences of perpetuating the thin ideal are severe, it is important to focus on prevention and on educating pre-adolescents, adolescents, and college students about media images.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31058", "31068", "31073" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-21T04:34:05-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33563, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "714febcc-6f9f-4ce1-9dd8-17830d016788", "siteSettingsId": 33563, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21183, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Monkey see, monkey do: Do college students model collegehumor.com?", "slug": "monkey-see-monkey-do-do-college-students-model-collegehumor-com", "uri": "medialab/research-article/monkey-see-monkey-do-do-college-students-model-collegehumor-com", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:21-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:12:03-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33563, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/monkey-see-monkey-do-do-college-students-model-collegehumor-com", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/monkey-see-monkey-do-do-college-students-model-collegehumor-com", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41486": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Michael Albanese", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41487": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Larene Deguzman", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41488": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Alexandra Williott", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThrough a survey, this study seeks to find the relationship between the use of a popular website, collegehumor.com and conation. To further investigate the relationship between collegehumor.com and conation, this study will look for specific mediating factors. These factors include tolerance, perceived norm, and perceived humor of three stimulus material from the website. Lastly, the study seeks to find a relationship between alcohol consumption and conation, tolerance, and perceived norm.
\n\n\tRQ: For undergraduate students, controlling for gender, what is the relationship
\n\tbetween the use of CollegeHumor.com and conation, tolerance, and perceived norm of presented material?
\n\tH1: The use of CollegeHumor.com will have a positive relationship with conation.
\n\tH1a: Perceived norm of presented material will act as a mediator between the use of CollegeHumor.com and conation.
\n\tH1b: Tolerance of presented material will act as a mediator between the use of CollegeHumor.com and conation.
\n\tH1c: Perceived humor of presented material will act as a mediator between the use of CollegeHumor.com and conation.
\n\tH2: The amount of alcoholic drinks participants have will have a positive relationship between conation, tolerance, and perceived norm of presented material.
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/monkeyfigure1.jpg\")
\n\tThe study was conducted at a large Northeastern University. Participants consisted of both Penn State Students and non Penn State Students. The study was conducted as a voluntary, face-to-face survey that was expected to take 10-15 minutes to complete. The survey consisted of two sections. The first section asked for a general demographic description of the participant with questions asking for the participants’ age, semester standing, and major. Then participants were asked about their general behavior regarding internet usage and drinking alcohol using a nine-point Likert scale. The second section of the survey asked participants to look at three different pictures, contained in separate folders.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/monkeyfigure2.jpg\")
\n\tEach picture was taken directly from the collegehumor.com website. They were then asked the same 10 questions for each picture. After collecting all of the responses, data was entered in JMP 5.1 manually.
\n\n\tThe sample size of this study consisted of 104 people, of which there were 53 females and 48 males with two abstaining from response. The participants had a mean age of 20.66 years with a maximum of 29 years and minimum of 18 years.
\n\tOur primary hypothesis, H1, was supported by the results of a Standard Least Squares analysis. H1a, H1b, and H1c were not supported. This study was unable to find a mediator between the use of collegehumor.com and conation. Our secondary hypothesis, H2, was supported.
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/monkeyfigure3.jpg\")
\n\tAfter analyzing the data it was determined that there is positive a relationship between use of collegehumor.com and conation. From our data, we can predict students’ behavioral intention from the use of collegehumor.com. The results of the data showed that while use of collegehumor.com has an effect on conation, the perception of norm, tolerance, and humor of the viewed material on the website are not mediating factors. In other words, this study was able to prove there is a positive relationship between colleghumor.com and conation but unable to determine why a person is more likely to actually model the actions viewed on the website.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31058", "31068", "31073" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-21T04:32:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33555, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "f65af410-3850-457a-90e6-03368185f0c7", "siteSettingsId": 33555, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21181, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "What’s green is good:", "slug": "whats-green-is-good", "uri": "medialab/research-article/whats-green-is-good", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:20-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:42:57-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33555, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/whats-green-is-good", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/whats-green-is-good", "subtitle": "The effect of green advertising on perception of product quality, corporate social responsibility and purchase intent", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41479": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sarah Burton", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41480": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "George Christo-Baker", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41481": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Valery Dames", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tWhat effect does the level of “Greenness” of an advertisement have on consumers? How does the perception of going “Green” effect brand and company image? The current study examines the relationships between the level of Greenness of an advertisement, perceptions of corporate social responsibility, perceptions of product quality, and purchase intent.
\n\n\tRQ1: For Penn State undergraduate students, controlling for gender, environmental consciousness and previous use of product, what is the relationship between the level of Greenness of advertisement and purchase intent?
\n\n\tRQ2: For Penn State undergraduate students, controlling for gender, environmental consciousness and previous use of product, what is the relationship between the level of Greenness of an advertisement and perception of product quality?
\n\n\tRQ3: For Penn State undergraduate students, controlling for gender, environmental consciousness and previous use of product, what is the relationship between the level of Greenness of an advertisement and perception of the company’s corporate social responsibility?
\n\n\tRQ4: For Penn State undergraduate students, controlling for gender, environmental consciousness and previous use of product, what is the relationship between perception of product quality and purchase intent?
\n\n\tRQ5: For Penn State undergraduate students, controlling for gender, environmental consciousness and previous use of product, what is the relationship between perception of a company’s corporate social responsibility and purchase intent?
\n\n\tRQ6: For Penn State undergraduate students, controlling for gender, environmental consciousness and previous use of the product, what is the relationship between the level of Greenness of an advertisement, the perception of product quality, the perception of corporate social responsibility and purchase intent?
\n\n\tH1a: When advertising a Green product, the use of Green imagery will be positively correlated with purchase intent.
\n\n\tH1b: When advertising a non-Green product, the use of Green imagery will be negatively correlated with purchase intent.
\n\n\tH2: There will be a positive correlation between the level of Greenness of an advertisement and the perception of product quality.
\n\t
\n\tH3: There will be a positive correlation between the level of Greenness of an advertisement and the perception of corporate social responsibility.
\n\tH4: The perception of product quality will be positively correlated with purchase intent.
\n\n\tH5: The perception of corporate social responsibility will be positively correlated with purchase intent.
\n\n\tH6a: The level of Greenness of an advertisement and the perception of corporate social responsibility will be positively correlated with purchase intent.
\n\n\tH6b: The level of Greenness of an advertisement and the perception of product quality will be positively correlated with purchase intent.
\n\n\tThe study utilized a between-subject experimental design. One hundred undergraduate students participated in the study. The subjects were randomly assigned to view one of four conditions and then directed to take surveys. Responses to the questions were used to measure the participants’ attitudes/perceptions toward the brand, product, and advertisement. In addition their level of environmental consciousness and buying intent was measured.
\n\n\tFor research questions one through three a 2 by 2 factorial design and a one-way ANOVA were used to test the effect of the level of Greenness of a given condition on purchase intent, product quality, and perception of corporate social responsibility. For research questions four through six a 2 by 2 factorial design was used to determine relationships between perceptions of product quality on purchase intent, corporate social responsibility on purchase intent, and that of Green imagery on purchase intent. All hypotheses were supported and showed statistical significance (p<.05), with the exclusion of H1b.
\n\n\tThe findings of the study show that “Greenness” within an advertisement positively affects consumer’s perceptions of the product, brand, and company. A higher level of Greenness within an advertisement also increases the likelihood that an individual would purchase the product. Perceptions of corporate social responsibility and product quality were also found to mediate the relationship between level of Greenness within an advertisement and buying intent.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31058", "31068", "31073" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-21T04:28:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33547, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "55374397-fb63-423c-bb1f-03cc5e68fb62", "siteSettingsId": 33547, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21179, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Everything you wanted to know about tdp media but were too afraid to ask", "slug": "everything-you-wanted-to-know-about-tdp-media-but-were-too-afraid-to-ask", "uri": "medialab/research-article/everything-you-wanted-to-know-about-tdp-media-but-were-too-afraid-to-ask", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:18-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:43:12-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33547, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/everything-you-wanted-to-know-about-tdp-media-but-were-too-afraid-to-ask", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/everything-you-wanted-to-know-about-tdp-media-but-were-too-afraid-to-ask", "subtitle": "A study about tdp media and its effects on the public", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41472": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Nicole Siegel", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41473": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Lindsey Steck", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41474": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jessica Schleifstein", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThin-depicting and promoting (TDP) media is becoming more popular and teenagers are constantly being exposed to it. We wanted to see if different TDP media vehicles (TV, magazine and internet) are affecting college students in either their body satisfaction or perceived reality.
\n\n\tFor college students, controlling for gender, what is the relationship between the amount of usage/kinds of media vehicles (TV, magazines, and Internet website) and Reality Perception and Body Dissatisfaction?
\n\n\tRQ1: For college students, controlling for media content, what is the relationship between media vehicles (magazines, TV, and internet) and body dissatisfaction effects?
\n\n\tRQ 2: For college students, controlling for their own level of body satisfaction, what is the relationship between amount of internet use and their perception of others’ body satisfaction?
\n\n\tRQ3: For college students, controlling for content media, what is the relationship between different media vehicles and perception of publicized topics?
\n\n\tWe conducted a survey which included 160 participants (36 males and 123 females). There were 31 questions which included questions about television, magazines and the internet as well as body satisfaction of themselves and others. It also included questions about topics that are portrayed in the media they consume as well as how publicized they think those topics are. Our Independent variables were the amount of TV/magazine/internet viewing and frequency and type of TV/magazine and internet viewing. Our dependent variables were their own body satisfaction, other people’s body satisfaction, and their reality perception. Several TV shows were combined into one measure: Gossip Girl, Desperate Housewives, Entourage, Girls Next Door, America’s Next Top Model, Real World, Grey’s Anatomy and Nip/tuck. Likewise, several magazines were combined into one measure: US Weekly, Cosmopolitan, Star, Instyle, Vogue, Allure, and Intouch. Finally, websites that were combined were Perezhilton, D-Listed, MTV, Style, Shopbop, Facebook, Twitter, Myspace, Youtube, Blogger and IMDB. We ran a regression analysis and a interaction analysis to come up with our results.
\n\n\tIn our results, we found that the TDP media vehicle you consume is not significant to your body satisfaction. When we ran a regression analysis between the combined TV shows/magazines and websites, to their body satisfaction, we found no correlation. Therefore, there is no significant relationship between TDP media and body dissatisfaction.
\n\n\tHowever, when we ran an interaction analysis comparing high and low internet users, high and low body satisfaction and others' (friends, classmates, parents, siblings and teachers) high and low body satisfaction, we did find a correlation. The mainstreaming effect took place when we looked at friends and classmates but not with parents, teachers and siblings. If you were a low internet user and have low body satisfaction, then you will also think your friends and classmates have low body satisfaction. If you are a low internet user and have high body satisfaction, then you will also think your friends and classmates have high body satisfaction. However, if you are a high internet user then you will think your friends and classmates have the same body satisfaction no matter what your body satisfaction is. This does not apply to parents, teachers or siblings.
\n\n\t
\n\tFinally we found a correlation between TDP media and how publicized you think gossip topics are. If you view TDP media, then you will think that gossip topics are extremely publicized. However, if you do not view TDP media, then you will not think gossip is highly publicized.
\n\tIn conclusion, we found that TDP media does not influence your own body satisfaction but it does when asking about your friends and classmates. The mainstreaming effect plays a role when asking about other people and TDP media. Also, uses and gratifications plays a role when asking about how publicized gossip topics are. If you view TDP media, then you will think gossip topics are highly publicized. This is because you choose what you’re watching based on what you enjoy. If you enjoy TDP media, then you are going to watch it and think what you are watching is important. Although we found no correlation between consumption of TDP media and body dissatisfaction, we believe this could have to do with social desirability (sensitive nature of questions dealing with body dissatisfaction).
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31058", "31068", "31073" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-21T04:24:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33541, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "f4c5a238-7a35-4b6a-b974-7dafe09b8c55", "siteSettingsId": 33541, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21177, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "OMG: gossip girls (perez included) & cultivation--wth are the effects?", "slug": "omg-gossip-girls-perez-included-cultivation-wth-are-the-effects", "uri": "medialab/research-article/omg-gossip-girls-perez-included-cultivation-wth-are-the-effects", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:17-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:43:30-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33541, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/omg-gossip-girls-perez-included-cultivation-wth-are-the-effects", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/omg-gossip-girls-perez-included-cultivation-wth-are-the-effects", "subtitle": "A study of gossip blogs on material values and real world perceptions", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41467": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Meghan Buonamici", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41468": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Alison Cowit", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tBlogs have emerged as a growing form of communication and gossip blogs in particular are increasing as a popular genre of entertainment on the Web. Extensive research has been conducted on the effects of television exposure on cultivated attitudes and beliefs. This paper extends previous research on television to the field of gossip blogs and effects on material values and perceived reality.
\n\n\tResearch Question
\n\tFor college students, controlling for attention and need for cognition, what is the relationship between exposure to gossip blogs and material values, perceived reality of substance abuse, and perceived reality of societal statistics?
\n\tH1: Exposure to gossip blog’s effects on material values.
\n\tH1a: Amount of gossip blog viewing will be positively related to level of material values.
\n\tH1b: The effect of gossip blog viewing on material values will be greater for those who pay more attention while viewing than for those who pay less attention.
\n\tH1c: The effects of gossip blog viewing on material values will be greater for those who elaborate more while viewing than for those who elaborate less.
\n\tH2: Exposure to gossip blog’s effects on perceived reality of substance abuse.
\n\tH2a: The effect of gossip blog viewing will be positively related to perceived reality of substance abuse.
\n\tH2b: The effect of gossip blog viewing on perceived reality of substance abuse will be greater for those who pay more attention while viewing than for those who pay less attention.
\n\tH2c: The effect of gossip blog viewing on perceived reality of substance abuse will be greater for those who elaborate more while viewing than those who elaborate less.
\n\tH3: Exposure to gossip blog’s effects on perceived reality of societal statistics.
\n\tH3a: The effect of gossip blog viewing will be positively related to perceived reality of societal statistics.
\n\tH3b: The effect of gossip blog viewing on perceived reality of societal statistics will be greater for those who pay more attention while viewing than for those who pay less attention.
\n\tH3c: The effect of gossip blog viewing on perceived reality of societal statistics will be greater for those who elaborate more while viewing than those who elaborate less.
\n\tAn online study was distributed to one hundred and fifty-two respondents using a sample obtained through communication courses at The Pennsylvania State University as well as social networking venues. Each respondent completed an online study pertaining to exposure to gossip blogs, news sites, and online shopping sites, in addition to questions regarding material values, substance abuse, societal statistics, attention, need for cognition and demographics.
\n\n\tThe results of this study indicated that exposure to gossip blogs does affect certain beliefs regarding materialism and perceived reality. Higher exposure to gossip blogs leads to higher material values (Figure 1) and societal statistics (Figure 2). Attention acted as a significant predictor for material values when it came to exposure (figure 3). Another significant finding of this study indicated that online shopping site exposure was a strong mediating variable.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/gossip01.jpg\")
\n\tFigure 1. Bivariate Fit of material values By total gossip exposures.
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/gossip02.jpg\")
\n\tFigure 2. Effect of gossip blog viewing on perceived reality of societal statistics.
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/gossip03.jpg\")
\n\tFigure 3. Attention to gossip blogs x material values.
\n\tThe results suggest that cultivation can occur through repeated exposure to gossip blogs. Gossip blog exposure can also affect certain individuals' perceived reality regarding the real world. Although this is not true for all societal estimates, the results indicate a significant effect that should be closely examined in future research.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31072" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-21T03:18:33-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33533, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "18373f33-169b-466d-8dd2-916153377be5", "siteSettingsId": 33533, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21175, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "My fitness perception: User self-health and motivations and rationales for mobile health application", "slug": "my-fitness-perception-user-self-health-and-motivations-and-rationales-for-m", "uri": "medialab/research-article/my-fitness-perception-user-self-health-and-motivations-and-rationales-for-m", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:15-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:11:55-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33533, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/my-fitness-perception-user-self-health-and-motivations-and-rationales-for-m", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/my-fitness-perception-user-self-health-and-motivations-and-rationales-for-m", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41460": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Elizabeth Brennan", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41461": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Elizabeth Eikey", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41462": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Siobhan McGroarty", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tObesity is a major problem in the U.S. To combat the obesity epidemic, many people are turning to mobile health apps. While mobile health apps are becoming increasingly popular, we know little about why people use them. In our study, we explore the motivations and rationales for mobile health app use.
\n\n\tH1: Individuals who possess higher self-efficacy will more likely possess a positive perception of self-health.
\n\tH2: Individuals who select mobile health apps for function and ease of use are more likely to have higher self-efficacy.
\n\tH3a: Those who have autonomous exercise motivations are more likely to use mobile health apps to track their diet and consumption habits.
\n\tH3b: Those who have autonomous exercise motivations are less likely to use the app to track their exercise behaviors.
\n\tH4: Those who select their mobile health apps for function reasons are less likely to have autonomous exercise motivations.
\n\tH5: Those who believe they are healthier than most people are more likely to feel badly when not using the mobile health app for a while.
\n\tH6: Individuals who consider themselves healthy are less likely to feel badly when they do not use the mobile health app for a while.
\n\tH7: Those with higher self-efficacy are less likely to feel negative emotions when they do not use the mobile health app for while.
\n\tRQ1: For mobile health app users, controlling for age and mobile health app usage, what is the relationship between age of mobile health app users and frequency of mobile health app use?
\n\tRQ2: For non-mobile health app users, controlling for age and mobile health app usage, what are the primary reasons individuals do not use mobile health apps?
\n\tRQ3: For mobile health app users, controlling for age and mobile health app usage, what mobile health apps are the most popular?
\n\tInformed by self-efficacy theory, self-determination theory, uses and gratifications theory, and Abraham and Michie's (2008) taxonomy of behavior change techniques, we developed an online survey using Survey Monkey. Respondents consented to the research prior to participating. In total, 196 respondents completed the survey. If an individual indicated he or she had used mobile health apps, he or she was prompted to answer 53 questions. If an individual indicated that he or she had not used a mobile health app, he or she was prompted to answer 34 questions. Respondents who answered all 53 questions took approximately 20 minutes to complete the questionnaire; whereas, those who answered only 34 questions took approximately 10 minutes. Out of the 196 respondents, 119 (61%) respondents had used a mobile health app and 77 (39%) indicated they had not. The response rate for the survey was 97.5%.
\n\n\tWe found a number of significant and interesting results, including three distinct motivations (consumption consciousness, exercise consciousness, and surveillance) and two distinct rationales (functionality and social connection) behind mobile health app usage. We found support for four of our hypotheses (H1, H3a, H4, and H6), partial support for two hypotheses (H5 and H7), and no support for two hypotheses (H2 and H3b). In regards to RQ1, we found users between 18 and 24 were more likely to use the app monthly and those between 25-34 were more likely to use the app weekly. We also obtained qualitative data for RQ2 and RQ3, which can lead to practical implications. In addition, we also found a relationship between how users perceive their weight and their motivations and rationales for mobile health app use. Overall, our study can be used as a platform for additional research in the important area of mobile health technology.
\n\n\tIn conclusion, our exploratory study aimed to better understand user motivations for using mobile health apps. Through our survey, we found several significant and notable findings, which can be used in theory development and practical application. Scholars, marketers, and healthcare professionals can leverage our findings to begin designing better apps, targeting specific audiences, distributing health information better, and positively impacting users' health outcomes. In order to really impact the obesity epidemic, more research is needed. We urge others to use this work as a foundation to expand research in the growing area of mobile health apps.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31072" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-21T03:13:11-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33525, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "b78bfdb8-f825-43ee-8c03-b66cb5ece67c", "siteSettingsId": 33525, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21173, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Understanding intention to use mobile time banking", "slug": "understanding-intention-to-use-mobile-time-banking", "uri": "medialab/research-article/understanding-intention-to-use-mobile-time-banking", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:14-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:11:53-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33525, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/understanding-intention-to-use-mobile-time-banking", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/understanding-intention-to-use-mobile-time-banking", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41453": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Keith Han", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41454": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Rob Grace", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41455": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Miao Miao", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis paper seeks to understand the factors contributing to the intention to use a mobile time banking application. Time banking is a community-based, volunteer system in which time credits are earned and spent based on offered or received assistance. Mobile time banking utilizes mobile information technology to organize and coordinate time banking activities.
\n\n\tRQ1: What factors contribute to the intention to adopt a mobile time banking application?
\n\n\tA survey was conducted in order to test an extension of the Technology Adoption Model (TAM) adapted for the context of mobile time banking. The survey was administered through Amazon’s Mechanical Turk, and featured initial sections measuring demographic information and an individual’s technological affinity. Technological affinity is constituted by four constructs accounting for an individual’s amenability to the adoption of a new, socially interactive technology. These constructs are social interaction, innovativeness, mobility, and convenience. Next the participants were informed of mobile time banking and the developed mobile application through three scenarios of use as well as a short video on the functionalities of the application. Following this information, the participants responded to items measuring their intentions of adopting the technology. The data acquired through this survey was subjected to structural equation modeling and the results were discussed.
\n\n\tThis paper gained understanding of the contributing influences for the adoption of a mobile time banking application. Testing the extended TAM, this paper found significant relationships between perceived usefulness and intention to use, as well as a strong positive relationship between perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness. In this regard, the results of this survey confirm the strong relationship between perceived usefulness and intention to use established in prior literature. Interestingly, the extended model tested here failed to find a significant relationship between perceived ease of use and intention to use. This may result from the participants’ unfamiliarity with the mobile time banking application.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/KeithHanFigure1.jpg\")
\n\tExtended Technology Adoption Model including constructs of technological affinity
\n\tAmong the constructs constituting technological affinity, innovativeness and convenience were found as significant contributors to the intention to use the technology. These results support further consideration of the implications of marketing and designing a system unfamiliar to users. A major consideration in this respect is effectively communicating system functionality and usage such that users will be more likely to perceive a system’s ease of use. The demonstrated significance of these constructs of technological affinity recommends the expansion of TAM to include such influences on technology adoption in future research.
\n\tOverall, this paper contributes to a further understanding of mobile time banking, and extends TAM to better account for the unique context posed by individual technology adoption of mobile, socially interactive technologies. The results of this study are important for the ongoing development and design of a mobile time banking system.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31072" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-21T03:10:38-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33517, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "f4f8d24a-6a94-462e-aea3-e2be6b15ee13", "siteSettingsId": 33517, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21171, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The effect of media modality on cross cultural virtual cooperation", "slug": "the-effect-of-media-modality-on-cross-cultural-virtual-cooperation", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-effect-of-media-modality-on-cross-cultural-virtual-cooperation", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:13-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:11:50-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33517, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-effect-of-media-modality-on-cross-cultural-virtual-cooperation", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-effect-of-media-modality-on-cross-cultural-virtual-cooperation", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41446": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Deanna Behring", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41447": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Robert J. Chesnick", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41448": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Qian Xu", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tQian Xu, Deanna Behring & Robert J. Chesnick (2008, May). The effect of media modality on cross-cultural virtual cooperation. Paper to be presented to the Communication and Technology Division of the International Communication Association (ICA) at the 58th conference in Montreal, Canada.
\n\n\tIn today’s global society, teams working together across cultural and national boundaries are vital to the work process. An increasing number of multinational companies depend on group work to think strategically, create new products, make decisions, and respond to crises. These are often temporary teams consisting of individuals from around the globe and from distinct technical competencies (Early & Peterson, 2004). Currently, 75% of entry-level workers in the United States are minorities and/or women (Boyett & Conn, 1992). Looking forward, it is projected that demographic changes will continue to affect organizations. By the year 2020, the majority of new entrants into organizations in the United States will be of Latin, Asian, or African descent (Judy & D’Amico, 1997). Please see Figure1 for the model of the study.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/cross.jpg\")
\n\tH1. In cross-cultural virtual dyads, participants will perceive more language difference between each other in audio condition than in text condition.
\n\n\tH2. In cross-cultural virtual dyads, participants will perceive more cultural difference between each other in audio condition than in text condition.
\n\n\tH3. In cross-cultural virtual dyads, participants will perceive more communication difficulties in text condition than in audio condition.
\n\n\tH4a. In cross-cultural virtual dyads, the relationship between modality and task performance is mediated by perceived language difference.
\n\n\tH4b. In cross-cultural virtual dyads, the relationship between modality and task performance is mediated by perceived cultural difference.
\n\n\tH4c. In cross-cultural virtual dyads, the relationship between modality and task performance is mediated by perceived communication difficulties.
\n\n\tH5a. In cross-cultural virtual dyads, the relationship between modality and team satisfaction is mediated by perceived language difference.
\n\n\tH5b. In cross-cultural virtual dyads, the relationship between modality and team satisfaction is mediated by perceived cultural difference.
\n\n\tH5c. In cross-cultural virtual dyads, the relationship between modality and team satisfaction is mediated by perceived communication difficulties.
\n\n\tTwenty six participants (N=26) were recruited from a northeastern university. Participants were paired into 13 dyads. Each dyad was composed of one China-born Chinese university student and one American-born American university student. Each dyad was asked to negotiate on two decision-making tasks through Google Talk. One task was audio-based and the other text-based. After they finished the first task (either via audio condition or text condition), participants completed an online questionnaire. Then they were instructed to finish the second task via a different modality condition. Following the second task, participants completed a paper-based questionnaire.
\n\n\tDependent Measures:
\n\tTask performance
\n\tSatisfaction with the task
\n\tMediating Measures:
\n\tPerceived communication difficulties
\n\tPerceived language difference
\n\tPerceived cultural difference
\n\t1. Hypothesis 1 was supported. Participants perceived significantly more language difference compared with their partner in the audio condition than in the text condition (F=4.64, p <.05; M(audio)= 6.07 , SE(audio)=.41 ; M(text)= 4.73, SD(text)= .47). Hypothesis 5a was supported. Perceived language difference fully mediated the correlation between modality and satisfaction.
\n\n\t2. Hypothesis 2 was partially supported. A significant effect of modality on perceived trustworthiness (F=3.18, p <.10) was found, but no effect on three factors of perceived cultural difference. Hypothesis 5b was only supported for perceived trustworthiness.
\n\n\t3. Hypothesis 3 was supported. There was significant difference for perceived communication difficulties in the audio vs. the text condition (F=11.39, p <.01). Hypothesis 5c was supported. Perceived communication difficulties fully mediated the correlation between modality and overall satisfaction and between modality and satisfaction with results.
\n\n\t4. Hypothesis 4a, 4b, and 4c were not supported. There were no significant difference between modality and task performance, let alone the impact of mediating variables.
\n\n\tWhile media richness theory would have predicted that audio communication would lead to higher perceived language deficiency, greater communication difficulty, and less satisfaction, the findings from this study suggest that language deficiency may not be a contributor to communication difficulty. Perceived language deficiency may actually contribute to greater satisfaction with the outcomes in multicultural teams. One explanation for this outcome is that the participants in the study may have adopted new communication strategies to address the language shortcomings, leading to greater appreciation, greater feelings of mutual support, and a greater sense of accomplishment.
\n\n\tThe findings also suggest that organizations looking to develop multicultural teams should consider the importance of trust building.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31072" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-21T03:08:31-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33513, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "48aa5f38-dd49-41ce-8ffc-943ab4583324", "siteSettingsId": 33513, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21169, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The effect of media consumption on perceptions of romantic relationships", "slug": "the-effect-of-media-consumption-on-perceptions-of-romantic-relationships", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-effect-of-media-consumption-on-perceptions-of-romantic-relationships", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:12-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:11:49-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33513, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-effect-of-media-consumption-on-perceptions-of-romantic-relationships", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-effect-of-media-consumption-on-perceptions-of-romantic-relationships", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41443": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Omotayo Banjo", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tBanjo, O. (2002). The effect of media consumption on the perception of romantic relationships. The Penn State McNair Journal, 9, 9-33.
\n\n\tIn every interpersonal relationship, a social exchange takes place whereby people tend to balance their emotional investment in the relationship by constantly comparing their current relationship to perceptions of what they deserve. Cultivation theory suggests that heavy media consumption might create false schemas about relationships, thereby creating false perceptions of what we deserve. The present study seeks to find any correlations between media consumption and people’s expectations of their ideal romantic relationships, by investigating television, print media, and Internet aspects of mass media. Based on cultivation theory and findings from previous studies, the following hypotheses were proposed:
\n\n\tH1: The increase in media consumption will be positively associated with fantasy rumination (people’s tendency to fantasize about marriage).
\n\n\tH2: The increase in media consumption will be positively associated with idealistic material expectations.
\n\n\tH3: The increase in media consumption will be positively associated with idealistic intimacy expectations.
\n\n\tH4: The increase in media consumption will be negatively associated with trust and commitment.
\n\n\tH5: The increase in media consumption will be negatively associated with relationship satisfaction.
\n\n\tA total of 108 participants were randomly selected from the Penn State University Park campus to take part in a survey during the month of July, 2002. The administered questionnaire took 10-12 minutes to fill out and consisted of 23 items. It included measures of media use, current relationship status and direct marital intentions, consumption of various forms of media, importance of emotional rewards, emotional /costs and perceived comparison, reliability of and attention paid to different forms of media, TV viewing, genre-specific TV viewing, perceived TV realism, fantasy rumination, idealistic marital expectations, idealistic intimacy expectations, marital tendency, trust and commitment, and relationship assessment.
\n\n\tH1: Partially supported. Consistent with predictions, TV viewing, and romantic comedies consumption in particular, showed a significant positive relationship with fantasy rumination. Also, we found a significant positive correlation between attention paid to, as well as trust in magazine love quizzes and scales, and the tendency to fantasize about romance. Contrary to prediction, however, there was a negative correlation between fantasy rumination and news reading.
\n\n\tH2: Supported. Analyses revealed a positive relationship between people’s trust in magazines and television and their idealistic marital expectations. Also, participants who trusted romance novels and the internet as reliable sources for relationships and those who trusted the validity of love quizzes were shown to have higher idealistic marital expectations.
\n\n\tH3: Not supported. Although a significant positive correlation was found between daily internet consumption and idealistic intimacy expectations, the relationship disappeared when controlled for gender. Moreover, negative correlations were revealed between soap opera consumption and idealistic intimacy expectations, and also between internet use and reality shows consumption and a person’s trust in a magazine’s portrayal of relationships.
\n\n\tH4: Supported. Participants’ trust and commitment showed significant negative correlations with the consumption of talk shows and reality shows about relationships, and also with news consumption.
\n\n\tH5: Not supported. Contrary to predictions, analyses indicated that relationship satisfaction was positively correlated to entertainment readership and also to romantic comedy consumption.
\n\n\tThis study attempted to find any possible correlation between media consumption in general and perceptions about romantic relationships. Results indicate that contrary to cultivation theory, the sheer amount of media consumption is not as good a predictor of unrealistic expectations and perceptions about romantic relationships as the genre of media. Most of the unrealistic expectations were shown to come from those who viewed more romantic comedies or paid more attention to love quizzes in magazines.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31072" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-21T03:01:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33503, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "69aab838-5484-4db3-b937-62f700eb01fa", "siteSettingsId": 33503, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21167, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "If you don't have anything nice to say...:", "slug": "if-you-dont-have-anything-nice-to-say", "uri": "medialab/research-article/if-you-dont-have-anything-nice-to-say", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:10-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:43:51-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33503, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/if-you-dont-have-anything-nice-to-say", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/if-you-dont-have-anything-nice-to-say", "subtitle": "The effect of systems breakdown on human-computer interactions", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41434": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Veena Raman", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41435": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Meghan Sanders", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41436": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Patty Michael-Wharton", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41437": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jennifer Warren", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tRaman, V.V., Sanders, M. S., Michael, P. W., & Warren, J. (2004 May). If you don't have anything nice to say...: The effect of systems breakdown on human-computer interactions. Paper presented to the Communication and Technology Division at the 54th annual convention of the International Communication Association (ICA), New Orleans, LA.
\n\n\tAs computer technologies evolve, they appear to be seamlessly merging into individuals’ everyday lives and experiences. Research has indicated that human-computer interactions (HCI) are fundamentally social and natural, similar to human-to-human interaction in real life. If users treat computers socially, then there is a strong possibility that users may not function to their fullest potential at work or at home if they encounter a negative interaction (i.e. computer breakdown). While good implementations of technologies mimicking human characteristics can generate social responses, most technologies are still susceptible to breakdowns. Errors made by computer systems are unlike any that a human would make. Do breakdowns make salient the idea that the computer is a medium and interrupt the user’s orientation toward the computer as a source? This study examines the effect of system breakdown on the social responses exhibited by individuals towards computers and how predispositions affect these responses.
\n\n\tSpecifically, we asked the following research question:
\n\n\tRQ1: What is the relationship between affinity seeking and affinity, and affinity seeking and politeness?
\n\n\tRQ2: What is the relationship between computer breakdown and politeness, and breakdown and affinity towards the computer?
\n\n\tRQ3: Will frustration serve as a mediator between the effect of computer breakdown and politeness in rating the computer?
\n\n\tA within subjects repeated measures experiment was conducted in order to investigate these questions. A total of 88 (48.9 % male, 51.1% female) participants were first randomly assigned to one of three different versions of a clip set which were designed to reflect three types of characters – hero, villain, and ambiguous, and which contained a movie synopsis, video clip, and screenplay excerpt. Each clip set consisted of each character portrayed by three different actors. For example, a participant may have seen Michael Keaton portray a hero, Aidan Quinn portray an ambiguously-valenced character, and David Duchovny portray a villain. In a different clip set, a participant may have seen Aidan Quinn as the hero, Michael Keaton as the villain, and David Duchovny as the ambiguously-valenced character. Each actor portrayed all three character types. In each of the three versions, the storyline, names, and actions of the character were changed to reflect the roles of hero, villain, and ambiguous characters. After exposure to one of the three versions of the clip set, participants were asked to respond to scales measuring their identification with and enjoyment of the three types of characters.
\n\n\tRQ1: Affinity-seeking significantly affected affinity for the computer but not politeness towards it. However, affinity-seeking stopped being a significant predictor when levels of investment, involvement and frustration were taken into account. Nor was it significant when the difference between pre- and post affinity ratings were taken into account.
\n\n\tRQ2: Participants in the control or no breakdown condition exhibited significantly more affinity for the computer than did the early breakdown participants and the late breakdown participants. Politeness also differed significantly by condition, such that participants in the early breakdown condition were more polite than those in the late breakdown.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-04-20_at_8.07.16_PM.png\")
\n\tRQ3: When investment, frustration and involvement were taken into account, condition exerted a significant influence on affinity. In addition, condition also had a strong effect on frustration, such that participants in the early breakdown condition were more frustrated than in the late and control conditions. These results suggest that frustration is a mediator for predisposition's effects on affinity towards the computer, but not a person's politeness levels.
\n\n\tThe results of this study indicate that social responses to computers did change as a result of the system’s breakdown, but only in terms of affinity. However, people were polite and exhibited affinity even in the conditions where there was a breakdown. This might be due to the fact that giving quick feedback can decrease uncertainty and promote positive affect, even when errors occur. Additionally, the difference in and the direction of affinity between early and late breakdown conditions could also be a result of a shift of the computer from a ready-at-hand to a present-at-hand state, meaning that people do not see the computer as a tool (ready-at-hand) until it commits an error, making its tool status extremely salient (present-at-hand). Since affinity-seeking was found to affect affinity but not politeness, it is possible to contend that people are able to satisfy certain interpersonal needs through interactions with computers.
\n\n\tGiven that computers are not yet error free, the findings of the study are of importance in understanding the psychological and cognitive processes involved in encountering computer breakdowns while attempting to complete a task.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31072" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-21T02:58:18-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33493, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "aa51e3fb-45ec-4c14-85c3-624ecc9b9e6f", "siteSettingsId": 33493, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21165, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Friendships through im: Examining the relationship between instant messaging and intimacy", "slug": "friendships-through-im-examining-the-relationship-between-instant-messaging", "uri": "medialab/research-article/friendships-through-im-examining-the-relationship-between-instant-messaging", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:08-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:11:43-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33493, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/friendships-through-im-examining-the-relationship-between-instant-messaging", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/friendships-through-im-examining-the-relationship-between-instant-messaging", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41418": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Yifeng Hu", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41421": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jackie Fowler Wood", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41423": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Vivian Smith", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41424": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Nalova Westbrook", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tHu, Y., Wood J. F., Smith, V., & Westbrook, N. (2004). Friendship through IM: Examining the Relationship between Instant Messaging and Intimacy. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 10 (1), Article 6.
\n\n\tThe increasing use of Instant Messaging (IM), prompts communication scholars to assess its influences on interpersonal communication and relationships. In examining possible implications of increased popularity of IM nationwide, it seems that one segment of the population may be more affected than others – college students. Statistics show that college students actively access the Internet and utilize IM software more than the overall US population. To date, there is little research examining the relationship between the amount of IM use in college students and their social connectedness. This study explores the relationship between the amount of IM use and the level of perceived intimacy between friends. Based on Relationship Liberated perspective of Computer-Mediated-Communication (CMC), we asked the following research question:
\n\n\tRQ: For college students, controlling for gender and age, is there a correlation between the amount of IM use and the level of perceived intimacy between friends?
\n\n\tOne hypothesis, based on the research question and prior research, was proposed:
\n\n\tH1: The amount of IM use will be positively associated with the level of perceived intimacy between friends.
\n\n\tPerceived intimacy was split into three distinct measures, for which the following predictions were formulated:
\n\n\tVerbal Intimacy: IM use will lead to an increase in self-disclosure.
\n\n\tAffective Intimacy: IM use will lead to an increase in sentimental and longing feelings between friends.
\n\n\tSocial Intimacy: IM use will foster more intimate feelings towards friends and a desire to self-disclose to friends.
\n\n\tEvery third college student exiting one of three central campus buildings was asked to fill out a two-page, fifteen-item questionnaire on IM. The response rate was 58.9 %. Among 138 students who participated in the survey, 89% stated that they did use IM software. Those who indicated they did not use IM to talk with friends were excluded from analysis. The survey was administered on weekends and weekdays, in the morning, midday , afternoon, and evening hours over a four-day period. Dependent variables included verbal intimacy, affective intimacy, and social intimacy.
\n\n\tH1: Supported. Results showed IM use amount was positively associated with verbal, affective and social intimacy. As IM use amount increased, each so did verbal, social and affective intimacy, to slightly varying degrees .
\n\n\tIn addition, results indicate that frequent conversation via IM actually encourages the desire to meet face-to-face. For example, participants who reported heavy IM use, more strongly agreed with the following statement in our questionnaire “after talking with my friends on IM, I want to see them face-to-face.”
\n\n\tIn summary, results from this study lend support to our hypothesis suggesting a positive relationship between IM use amount and verbal, affective, and social intimacy. Therefore, our findings are consistent with the liberation position of CMC relationships, and suggest that IM promotes rather than hinders intimacy. Moreover, this study indicates that frequent conversation via IM actually encourages the desire to meet face-to-face. This particular finding implies that online communication can reinforce face-to-face interaction.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31072" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-21T02:55:36-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33483, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "bab08d86-3b74-4bff-8799-3da67c462474", "siteSettingsId": 33483, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21163, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Impression formation effects in moderated chatrooms: An experimental study of gender differences", "slug": "impression-formation-effects-in-moderated-chatrooms-an-experimental-study-o", "uri": "medialab/research-article/impression-formation-effects-in-moderated-chatrooms-an-experimental-study-o", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:06-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:11:40-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33483, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/impression-formation-effects-in-moderated-chatrooms-an-experimental-study-o", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/impression-formation-effects-in-moderated-chatrooms-an-experimental-study-o", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41400": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Corina Constantin", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41401": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sriram Kalyanaraman", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41402": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Carmen Stavrositu", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41403": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Nathan Wagoner", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tConstantin, C., Kalyanaraman, S., Stavrositu, C., & Wagoner, N. (2002, November). Impression formation effects in moderated chatrooms: An experimental study of gender differences. Poster presented at the 88th annual meeting of the National Communication Association (NCA), New Orleans, LA.
\n\n\tIt is generally accepted that nonverbal cues (such as body language) are important indicators of impression formation in Face-to-Face (FtF) interactions. In online interactions, or Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC), these cues take the form of graphic signs, such as emoticons, that can carry into CMC the same socio-emotional information and perform similar roles as nonverbal cues in FtF. In this context, one question that has received considerable attention pertains to perceptions of the \"other\" in mediated environments. The present study attempts to answer this question by examining impression-formation effects of male and female moderators in online chatrooms.
\n\n\tImpressions formed by participants about a male moderator’s use/non-use of emoticons in a chatroom will differ from the impressions formed by participants about a female moderator’s use /non-use of emoticons.
\n\n\tA total of 58 participants took part in a between-subjects experiment. All participants were randomly exposed to one of four experimental conditions, as follows: just moderator with emoticons, just chatters with emoticons, everybody with emoticons, and none with emoticons. Two chat transcripts containing the same four conditions but led by two different moderators were created: San Francisco Chat (female moderator) and Reality vs. Imagination Chat (male moderator). Participants were evenly spread across the four conditions of the two chat transcripts. After their exposure to the chat transcripts, participants’ impressions of the moderators were measured via their responses to questions included in a paper-and-pencil questionnaire.
\n\n\tH1: Supported.
\n\n\tThe dependent measure of impression formation was divided into six factors called “Conscientiousness,” “Boldness,” “Intensity,” “Professionalism,” “Dynamism,” and “Confidence.”
\n\n\tProfessionalism: Use of emoticons did not influence impressions formed about male moderators. However, impressions formed about female moderators were affected, such that they were rated as significantly more professional when they did not use emoticons than when they did.
\n\n\tDynamism: Female moderators were perceived as significantly less dynamic when they used emoticons than when they did not. For male moderators, perceptions of dynamism were not differentially affected by their emoticon use.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/chat1.gif\")
\n\tThe findings from this study indicate that while impressions formed about male moderators are not affected by emoticons’ use, the ones formed about female moderators are significantly influenced both by emoticons’ use and by the context in which emoticons are used. Previous research has shown that in CMC contexts, women are more likely than men to engage in socio-emotional and relational patterns of communication. Accordingly, one possible explanation for our findings could be that use of emoticons by female moderators makes them appear as excessively emotional, too casual, not authoritative or expert enough to be taken seriously and, consequently, their competence as moderators is being questioned.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31072" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-21T00:04:49-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33473, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "5ac4fdb8-19a0-42d5-9c86-02b730cc0688", "siteSettingsId": 33473, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21161, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "To be or not to be emotional: Impression formation effects of emoticons in moderated chatrooms", "slug": "to-be-or-not-to-be-emotional-impression-formation-effects-of-emoticons-in-m", "uri": "medialab/research-article/to-be-or-not-to-be-emotional-impression-formation-effects-of-emoticons-in-m", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:05-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:11:37-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33473, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/to-be-or-not-to-be-emotional-impression-formation-effects-of-emoticons-in-m", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/to-be-or-not-to-be-emotional-impression-formation-effects-of-emoticons-in-m", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41382": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Corina Constantin", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41383": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sriram Kalyanaraman", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41384": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Carmen Stavrositu", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41385": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Nathan Wagoner", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tConstantin, C., Kalyanaraman, S., Stavrositu, C., & Wagoner, N. (2002, August). To be or not to be emotional: Impression formation effects of emoticons in moderated chatrooms. Paper presented to the Communication Technology and Policy Division at the 85th annual convention of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC), Miami Beach, FL. [Top-three student paper award]
\n\n\tEarly research on Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) has consistently shown that, due to reduced interactivity and social information, CMC is asynchronous and impersonal, suited mostly for task-oriented activities. Nowadays, however, CMC is becoming increasingly synchronous (due to such instant communication exchange applications as chat rooms or virtual communities), and its social orientation is growing more salient. Internet users are devoting increasing interest to online social interactions. Moreover, CMC communications have established a culture of their own, characterized by abbreviations, acronyms, spelling variations and emoticons. Starting from the premise that all these graphic cues have the potential of substituting the lack of Face-to-Face (FtF) communication tools, the present paper attempts to gauge impression formation effects of emoticons in a moderated chat room scenario by examining the following hypothesis:
\n\n\tH1: In a CMC context, a chat room moderator is more likely to elicit positive impressions in chat transcripts’ readers when he/she uses emoticons than when he/she does not.
\n\n\tA between-subjects factorial experiment was conducted with the participation of 58 undergraduate students. Use of emoticons was manipulated by creating four experimental conditions, as follows: just moderator with emoticons, just chatters with emoticons, everybody with emoticons, and none with emoticons. Subsequently, two chat transcripts were created: the San Francisco Chat (the moderator leads a discussion with the chatters about San Francisco and the Bay Area) and Reality vs. Imagination Chat (the moderator and the chatters talk about the ease/difficulty of making the distinction between reality and imagination), to reflect the four experimental conditions. Participants were evenly spread across the four conditions of the two chat transcripts. After exposure to the chat transcripts, impressions of the moderators were elicited via measures included in a paper-and-pencil questionnaire.
\n\n\tThe dependent measure of impression formation was divided into six factors called “Conscientiousness,” “Boldness,” “Intensity,” “Professionalism,” “Dynamism” and “Confidence.”
\n\n\tH1: Not supported. On the whole, subjects did not evince positive impressions of moderators using emoticons. Significant main effects of moderator’s use of emoticons were found, suggesting that the moderator was perceived as more dynamic, friendlier, more valuable and more talkative when she/he did not use emoticons than when she/he did. Also, the moderator was perceived as more conscious, more sociable and nicer when she/he did not use emoticons.
\n\n\tThere are at least three possible explanations for the lack of support for our hypothesis. One of them refers to a “negativity bias,” whereby if an initial negative impression of the moderator occurred supplemental nonverbal cues (in our case, emoticons) would emphasize such negative impressions. The second explanation, based on the model of mediated-communication competence, suggests that emoticons’ use might make a moderator appear too friendly, too familiar, not authoritative or expert enough to be taken seriously, resulting in moderator competency being questioned. Finally, the distinction between participant and observer in a communicational environment is worth noting - our participants did not take part in the chat conversation, such that their ratings of the moderators were based on observation, not participation.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31072" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-21T00:02:13-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33467, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "97979fd1-a2e7-4533-a26f-953b98cd0b84", "siteSettingsId": 33467, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21159, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Cell phone usage and social interaction with proximate others: Ringing in a theoretical model", "slug": "cell-phone-usage-and-social-interaction-with-proximate-others-ringing-in-a", "uri": "medialab/research-article/cell-phone-usage-and-social-interaction-with-proximate-others-ringing-in-a", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:03-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:11:35-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33467, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/cell-phone-usage-and-social-interaction-with-proximate-others-ringing-in-a", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/cell-phone-usage-and-social-interaction-with-proximate-others-ringing-in-a", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41371": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Banjo, O.", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41372": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Hu, Y.", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tUntil recently, research on the social psychological impact of cell phone usage in public places has been scarce and limited to observational methods. Not only do findings indicate that the presence of cell phones in public pose a conflict between private and public spheres, but cell phone usage also inhibits social interaction with proximate others (strangers or known persons).
\n\n\tThe purpose of this paper is to develop a theoretical model for which social effects of cell phone usage in public places can be empirically tested. In this paper, we discuss various mediating and moderating variables to consider in the study of cell phone usage (CPU) and social interaction with proximate others (SIPO).
\n\n\tWe offer a modest experiment of cell phone usage in the context of social participation a form of social interaction, to which the model could be implemented.
\n\n\tFocusing on helping behavior in particular, results indicate that while on the cell phone, users are less likely to notice when someone is in need of help.
\n\n\tThese findings imply that cell phone usage in public places can distract users from social responsibilities, as they neglect the environment surrounding them. The implications of this project also call for a need to elaborate on empirical methods of studying CPU in public places in hopes of developing a social code for proper cell phone usage.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31072" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-20T23:59:02-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33461, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "e8c46f97-f7bc-4d74-8aee-a18a2642b9a1", "siteSettingsId": 33461, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21157, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Computer mediated communication: The impact of ICT usage on non-platonic relationships", "slug": "computer-mediated-communication-the-impact-of-ict-usage-on-non-platonic-rel", "uri": "medialab/research-article/computer-mediated-communication-the-impact-of-ict-usage-on-non-platonic-rel", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:02-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:11:33-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33461, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/computer-mediated-communication-the-impact-of-ict-usage-on-non-platonic-rel", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/computer-mediated-communication-the-impact-of-ict-usage-on-non-platonic-rel", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41364": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Kayla Hales", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41366": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Bridget Blodgett", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tInterpersonal relationships are one of the most essential elements of life. Once established, it is necessary that they be maintained. With the advent of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), a new communication culture has emerged. This new form of communication (Computer Mediated Communication - CMC) is a type of relational maintenance strategy currently being overlooked in the literature. Yet, as CMC is becoming more prevalent, it is becoming increasingly important that we study its influence on sustaining interpersonal relationships.
\n\n\t- RQ1: How do media affordances influence the use of relational maintenance behaviors?
\n\t- RQ2: How does written and vocal electronic communication with one’s partner influence relationship quality?
\n\t- RQ3: How do individuals and their communication with their partner vary in relation to their use of relational maintenance behaviors?
\n\tRespondents for this study consisted of 123 undergraduate students from two universities in the northeastern United States. However, 15 respondents indicated that they were not a member of a non-platonic relationship. Therefore, no data were collected from these individuals. Additionally, 52 respondents did not fully complete the survey. Therefore, for the purpose of this study, N=56. Students from The Pennsylvania State University (67.90%) were recruited via classes in the College of Communication and The College of Information Sciences and Technology. Some students received class credit for participating. Students from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (32.10%) were recruited via electronic mail. Females constituted 67% of the sample, leaving the male percentage at 33%; one participant did not indicate gender.
\n\n\tThere were significant ties between media choice and the use of relational maintenance behaviors. These ties are influenced by the perceived affordances of the medium that the individuals choose to communicate through. However, many of the media seem to support vocal communication behaviors more than they do the written communication behaviors. The demographics of the sample popular also seem to have some impact on what modality and media a couple will use in their communications.
\n\n\tThe synchronicity of media played a large role in individuals’ choices on which relational maintenance behaviors are used. Other perceived affordances also had some interaction with the behaviors however they were not found as strongly across the board. In addition, media that have a longer history of usage for maintaining relationships are used more frequently and have a stronger tie to the maintenance strategies. However, this strength is tied to the modality of the original medium. Individuals that used one type of modality increasing preferred that modality for all their behaviors, shying away from the other modalities that may be available.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31072" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-20T23:51:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33451, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "44175b74-2616-4085-a0b6-4e011786455f", "siteSettingsId": 33451, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21155, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Yo, dude! thz stdy iz gr8!!!1", "slug": "yo-dude-thz-stdy-iz-gr81", "uri": "medialab/research-article/yo-dude-thz-stdy-iz-gr81", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:30:00-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:44:18-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33451, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/yo-dude-thz-stdy-iz-gr81", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/yo-dude-thz-stdy-iz-gr81", "subtitle": "The relationship between new technologies and grammar scores in college student", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41345": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Cynthia Casebere", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41347": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Drew Cingel", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41349": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Paige Maloney", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41352": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Chiwei Tsui", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tRecently, there has been much discussion between educators, parents, and linguistics professionals as to the presence of techspeak, or online/texting shorthand, in the classroom. Some argue that this new language is destroying the core of English grammar, while others argue that it simply is a natural evolution of language. This study attempts to determine the effects of techspeak on English grammar; does the use of techspeak online or via texting lead to lower grammar scores?
\n\n\tH1: The more time a participant spends chatting online each day, the lower their scores on a regular English grammar test.
\n\n\tH2a: The more a participant sends or receives texts each day, the lower their scores on a regular English grammar test.
\n\tH2b: Participants who receive more texts will view texting as a “cool” thing to do.
\n\tH3: Participants who indicate high levels of study time will do better on an English grammar test than those who do not spend as much time studying, regardless of time spent chatting online or texting.
\n\n\tH4: Participants who major in Communications will have the highest scores of all majors due to increases in writing-intensive classes needed for the major.
\n\n\tA survey was chosen as the best method by which to collect data. Researchers sent participants a link to an online survey hosted by surveymonkey.com. Overall, 180 people responded, constituting our sample. After the removal of surveys that were deemed incomplete or inaccurate, our final sample size was 147. The independent variable in this study are identified as “Amount of text messages sent in a day”, “Amount of text messages received in a day”, and “Amount of time spent chatting online in a day.” There were two dependent measures used in this study, “Grammar Test Scores” and “Participant Opinions on Text Messaging”. Grammar test scores were distributed from a lowest possible score of 0 and a maximum of 20. Research participants were also asked to give their opinions on the following statements about text messaging on a 7-point Likert Scale (1=Strongly Disagree, 7=Strongly Agree). Demographic questions were also included in order to mask the intent of the survey as well as to gage internet and texting usage.
\n\n\tFollowing an ANOVA analysis, researchers found a significant relationship between time spent chatting online and grammar scores. Participants in the medium usage distribution exhibited significantly lower grammar scores than participants in the low or high condition.
\n\n\tAlso, researchers found a relationship between the amount of texts sent and received per day. Once the number of texts sent or received surpasses the 87 per day threshold, grammar scores decrease significantly. In addition, participants who received a high amount of texts per day (87 +) rated texting to be more fun and more cool than those who received a smaller amount of texts per day.
\n\n\tHowever, we did not find any significant relationships between the amount of time spent studying per day or the college major of the participant.
\n\n\tWith this study done in response to educator and parental worries about the effects of techspeak, it is important to apply the findings to these groups. Educators and parents need to make clear the appropriate and inappropriate times and places for techspeak. There is a difference between scholastic writing and casual conversation and children need to be aware of that from a young age. If enforced properly, this will reduce the strength of cultivation effects. In addition, teachers especially should be informed about observational learning and effective ways of using it. Observational learning can be applied to the formation of writing skills. Educators should use this to their advantage in order to teach grammar skills. The classroom often naturally demands attention and retention of information, but the skills must be practiced and the students must have motivation to remember this method of writing. Educators should make this a priority in future lesson planning and legislation of standards. This being said, the results of this study should indicate to educators that current college-aged students should not be of great concern in regard to this issue. Most of them seem to have already had their grammar skills established before the explosion of techspeak with new technologies and therefore do not show negative effects on grammar skills. This does not mean, however, that this is true for younger or older generations, which is worth investigating.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31072" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-20T23:48:05-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33443, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "b58ee551-4799-435a-829a-dfc14c1dd0cf", "siteSettingsId": 33443, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21153, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Impact of interactive devices on face to face interaction", "slug": "impact-of-interactive-devices-on-face-to-face-interaction", "uri": "medialab/research-article/impact-of-interactive-devices-on-face-to-face-interaction", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:58-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:11:27-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33443, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/impact-of-interactive-devices-on-face-to-face-interaction", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/impact-of-interactive-devices-on-face-to-face-interaction", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41330": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Lee Peglow", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41331": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Mike Latshaw", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41332": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jon Kapp", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\t
\n\n\tThe goal of this research is to find out the impact of interactive devices such as cell phones, instant messaging, and social networking site activity to see if they have a positive or negative effect on face to face interaction. We were curious about which devices were being used the most with Penn State College students and which devices had what impacts.
\n\n\tResearch Question:
\n\tFor Penn State Students, controlling for gender, what is the relationship between text messaging, instant messaging, and social networking site activity and the amount of face to face interaction.
\n\tHypotheses:
\n\t1) Students use interactive devices more than going out and meeting face to face.
\n\t2) Greater use of interactive devices decreases the likelihood of face to face interaction.
\n\t3) Females using social networking sites have a greater social dependency to these sites than males using social networking sites.
\n\t4) Students who use more interactive devices have more intimate relationships.
\n\tAll participants (N=201) were asked to take a survey regarding their interactive device used and their face-to-face interaction. Participants were asked 25 questions about their use of text messaging, instant messaging, and social networking site activity. Other key questions about extracurricular activities were asked as well to measure face to face (FTF) interaction. Questions were made up of a mix between nominal, ratio, and open ended questions.
\n\n\tData was compiled based on the information provided by the participants at feedbackfarm.com then converted into an excel spread sheet where they were cleaned up and interpreted using the program JMP. The estimated time required to take this survey was approximately 5 minutes, and no incentive was provided for completing this survey.
\n\n\tThe results supported the hypothesis that greater use of interactive devices leads to a decrease in face to face interaction, F(1, 198) = 3.22, p < .05.
\n\n\tHowever, there was the exception of text messaging; those students who use text messaging more actually had an increase in the amount of face to face interaction they had, F(1,198) = 14.37, p < .05.
\n\n\tOur data also showed that females did have more of a dependency for social networking sites than males did.
\n\n\tFinally our fourth hypothesis was also supported; those who used more interactive devices have more intimate partners, t=1.66, p = .09 (approaching significance).
\n\n\tIn the end we found quite a bit of mixed results but were able to find out what we needed. Our first hypothesis was a little rough to measure and the results were a little skewed, however, it was similar enough to our second hypothesis which our data did support. The data also supported both hypotheses three and four. Interactive devices today do have an impact on face to face interaction among college students. Most have a negative effect on face to face interaction except for text messaging. Females at Penn State do have more of a dependency on social networking socials than males do. This might be because they worry more about their social status in life than most males do. Also Penn State college students who used more interactive devices ended up having more serious relationships and more intimate partners most likely because they kept in touch with the people they met which led to closer relationships.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31072" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-20T23:44:08-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33435, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "32559f91-25e9-4702-a8e0-8058398e79fa", "siteSettingsId": 33435, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21151, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Becoming invisible through IM: A third order effect", "slug": "becoming-invisible-through-im-a-third-order-effect", "uri": "medialab/research-article/becoming-invisible-through-im-a-third-order-effect", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:57-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:11:25-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33435, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/becoming-invisible-through-im-a-third-order-effect", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/becoming-invisible-through-im-a-third-order-effect", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41320": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Daniel Halpern", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41321": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Pan Shi", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41322": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Ying Chen", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tIM poses the paradoxical consequence of simultaneously decreasing work delays (firstorder effect), but increasing work interruptions (second-order effect). The third order effect is: users in IM systems might change their degree of social presence to invisible in the same way that they do in their off line relationships in order to avoid interruptions.
\n\n\tResearch Question: how individual differences might affect IM uses and specifically the tendency to be invisible.
\n\n\tH1: Individuals with a high need for control will show a higher preference to initiate conversations
\n\n\tH2: Individuals with a high need for control will show a higher preference to communicate asynchronously to answer conversations
\n\n\tH3: Individuals with a high need for control will evaluate better the IM application (allow them to choose individually the degree of visibility)
\n\n\tWe designed an experiment in which firstly participants were surveyed on their affinity level, and then every 3 participants were grouped to either “friend” group or “stranger” group based on that. After then, each group was asked to play a puzzle solving game by collaborating through an IM application. There were two kinds of levels in the game: easy and difficult, and participants were asked to play both, in the sequence that easy levels first and then difficult levels. During the time they played the game, they kept receiving interruptions from IM application every 2 minutes, and the only way to avoid interruptions is to change their status to invisible. After they finished both levels, they needed to fill out a questionnaire to measure their need for control level and the evaluation of the IM tool.
\n\n\t• H1 not supported, the preference to initiate conversations between individuals with high need for control and low need for control don’t have significant difference.
\n\n\t• H2 is partially supported, in the easy task, individuals with a need for control show a higher preference to communicate asynchronously to answer conversations, but in the difficult task, it change to the opposite (Figure 1).
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/im01.gif\")
\n\tFigure 1. Interaction between task difficulty and need for control
\n\n\t• The amount of data is not sufficient for us to measure H3.
\n\n\tOther findings:
\n\t1. The number of initiate times in easy task is much more than difficult task (p< .001).
\n\t2. participants who have high need for control initialize much more conversations in friends group than in stranger group (p = 0.036);
\n\t3. Male in high difficulty level task initialize much more than female (p < 0.05*), and in low difficulty level task male’s response delay is much shorter than female’s (p< 0.05);
\n\t4. The group leader’s average initialize rate is significantly less than others (p < 0.05), while in high difficulty level, group leaders’ response delay is significantly longer than others (p < 0.01);
\n\tOur explanation of the hypothesis not being fully supported is high need for control participants would have a stronger motivation to complete the collaboration task so that they would pursue a higher efficiency than participants with low need for control. And findings demonstrate that users are more prone to interrupt others when they are using less cognitive resources and have more confidence.
\n\n\tTo sum up, people with different level of need for control, in different position (leader or member), doing different tasks (easy or difficult) will require different functionality of IM applications. Thus, it is reasonable to embed policy setting function to IM application design which enable user to specify their using preference.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31072" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-20T23:41:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33427, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "5948a046-b4bb-454f-b23c-46a462e6fb6f", "siteSettingsId": 33427, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21149, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "It’s not what you say; it’s how you say it", "slug": "its-not-what-you-say-its-how-you-say-it", "uri": "medialab/research-article/its-not-what-you-say-its-how-you-say-it", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:55-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:44:35-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33427, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/its-not-what-you-say-its-how-you-say-it", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/its-not-what-you-say-its-how-you-say-it", "subtitle": "Effects of emotional text and age on perceptions of personality and character traits", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41310": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Lee Erickson", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41311": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Lu Zhang", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41312": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Heidi Webb", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tWhile CMC may not allow us to hone in on a facial expression or hand gesture, there are subtle cues to personality embedded within our text communications. This study examined the effects of “emotional text” (defined as use of emoticons, capitalization, exclamation points, and “lol”) on perceptions of sender’s personality. Specifically, how does the use of subtle emotional clues in CMC impact the perceptions of us in the minds of others? And, are these cues interpreted differently based on the age of the sender?
\n\n\tWhen using asynchronous chat for socialization:
\n\tH1: Individuals will rate others who use emotional text more positively on personality and character traits than individuals who do not use emotional text.
\n\tH2: Individuals will rate in-group individuals more positively on personality and character traits than out-group individuals.
\n\tH2a: Individuals will rate in-group individuals who use emotional text more positively on personality and character traits than in-group individuals who do not use emotional text.
\n\tH2b: Individuals will rate out-group individuals who use emotional text more negatively on personality and character traits than out-group individuals who do not use emotional text.
\n\tH3a: Individuals who perceive chat to be high for social presence will rate in-group individuals who use emotional text more positively on personality and character traits than in-group individuals who do not use emotional text.
\n\tH3b: Individuals who perceive chat to be high for social presence will rate out-group individuals who use emotional text more negatively on personality and character traits than out-group individuals who do not use emotional text.
\n\tH3c: Individuals who perceive chat to be low for social presence will rate in-group and out-group individuals who use emotional text similarly on personality and character trait.
\n\tH4a: Individuals who perceive emoticon use as not age appropriate for older adults will rate older adults that use emoticons more negatively on personality and character traits than those who do not.
\n\tH4b: Individuals who perceive emoticon use as age appropriate for younger adults will rate younger adults that use emoticons more positively on personality and character traits than those who do not use emoticons.
\n\tH4c: Individuals who have more contact with seniors will rate seniors more positively on personality and character traits than those who have limited contact.
\n\tRQ1: Do perceptions of personality and character traits of individual’s who use emoticons vary by gender?
\n\tA 2 (age: 20/60) X 2 (emotional text/non-emotional text) factorial study was conducted to examine the impact of age and emotional text on impression formation. Participants were told they would be communicating with another person via chat and would ask them a list of pre-defined questions. Based on condition, participants were told they would be chatting with a 20 year old or a 60 year old. For conditions that included emotional text, scripted answers from confederates include emoticons, all caps, exclamation points, and lol. The same answers were provided by confederates for non-emotional text conditions however, no emotional text was included. After chat sessions were complete participants answered an online survey asking them to rate individuals on personality and character traits.
\n\n\tThe results showed main effects from emotional text and age on socialibility factor, which supports H1 and does not support H2. Although all interaction effects were not significant, we found participants perceived younger adults who used emotional text to be more social and less conventional compared to those who did not. In addition, social presence, age appropriateness, and gender established significant moderating effect. The most interesting finding is the three way interaction between emotional text, age, and social presence. It indicates participants who perceive chat to be high for social presence did rate in-group individuals who use emotional text more reliable, and they rated out-group individuals who use emotional text less reliable.
\n\n\tFigure 1. Under age 20 condition, the interaction effect of emotional text and social presence on reliability.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/emot_ageIM01.JPG\")
\n\t
\n\n\tFigure 2. Under age 60 condition, interaction effect of emotional text and social presence on reliability.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/emot_ageIM02.JPG\")
\n\tResults demonstrated that emotional text does have an impact on our perceptions of others and generally in a positive direction. Additionally, while more researcher is needed, findings from this study suggest that specific CMCs may play a role in removing or lessening negative age-related stereotypes commonly held by young adults. Because this study examined only one time interactions, this “technology effect” may indeed be a strong cue altering our impressions even before we engage in conversation.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31072" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-20T23:35:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33419, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "70d60fb7-64e9-484b-be50-209fc4df2cc5", "siteSettingsId": 33419, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21147, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Do you believe in love at first sight?", "slug": "do-you-believe-in-love-at-first-sight", "uri": "medialab/research-article/do-you-believe-in-love-at-first-sight", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:54-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:44:42-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33419, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/do-you-believe-in-love-at-first-sight", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/do-you-believe-in-love-at-first-sight", "subtitle": "Effects of media richness via modalities on viewers overall impression of online dating profiles", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41298": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Seoyeon Lee", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41299": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Yuan Sun", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41300": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Elizabeth Thiry", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tGiven the nature of the online dating profiles, users need to make decisions about when, how, and what will be disclosed as part of their self-presentation. Online dating profiles are a crucial self-presentation tool as they are the first and primary means of expressing one’s self during the early stages of a correspondence and can therefore create relationship opportunities. However very little research has been done to determine if using richer media to create profiles will have a positive effect on a viewers overall impression.
\n\n\tRQ: How does the type of modality used in online profile [(text + picture (text only), text + picture + audio (audio), or text + picture + audio + video (video)] affect overall impression (level of perception, memory, and behavioral intention)?
\n\n\tH1: Participants exposed to richer media are more likely to feel that they have sufficient information to form an impression.
\n\n\tH1a: Participants who perceive that they have sufficient information will have a positive perception toward the person in the profile.
\n\n\tH1b: Participants who perceive that they have sufficient information will have a positive behavioral intention toward person in the profile and the website.
\n\n\tH2: Participants who were exposed to richer media will experience more social presence.
\n\n\tH2a: Participants who experience more social presence will have a positive perception toward the person in the profile.
\n\n\tH2b: Participants who experience more social presence will have a positive behavioral intention toward the person in the profile and the website.
\n\n\tH2c: Participants who experience more social presence will have greater memory for the profile contents.
\n\n\tH3: Participants in richer media conditions will experience more engagement than leaner conditions.
\n\n\tH3a: Participants who experienced more engagement will have a greater perception toward the person in the profile.
\n\n\tH3b: Participants who experienced more engagement will have greater behavioral intention toward the person in the profile and the website.
\n\n\tH3c: Participants who experienced more engagement will have a higher level of memory for the profile contents.
\n\n\tH4: Richer media conditions will prompt the coolness and novelty heuristics more than leaner conditions.
\n\n\tH4a: Participants who experienced more coolness and novelty heuristics will have a greater perception toward the person in the profile.
\n\n\tH4b: Participants who experienced more coolness and novelty heuristics will have a greater behavioral intention toward the person in the profile and the website.
\n\n\tH5: Richer media conditions will prompt the realism heuristics more than leaner conditions.
\n\n\tH5a: Participants who experienced more realism heuristics will have a greater perception toward the person in the profile.
\n\n\tH5b: Participants who experienced more realism heuristics will have a greater behavioral intention toward the person in the profile and the website.
\n\n\tH6: Participants who reported having a greater amount of information are more likely to experience heuristic cues.
\n\n\tH7: Participants in the priming conditions are more likely to engage in heuristic processing than those in the non-priming condition.
\n\n\tH7a: Participants who were in the non-priming condition are more likely to have greater perception toward the person in the profile.
\n\n\tH7b: Participants who were in the non-priming condition are more likely to have greater behavioral intention toward the person in the profile and the website.
\n\n\tH7c: Participants who were in the non-priming condition will have a higher level of memory for the profile contents.
\n\n\t275 participants volunteered to take part in the research study, a questionnaire, for extra credit in one of numerous communication and information sciences and technology classes that were sampled at a large public university. When the questionnaire link was clicked, participants were randomly assigned to one of six stimuli conditions: non-priming (text only, audio, or video) conditions or priming (text only, audio, or video) conditions. The questionnaire was made up of 83 questions used to gather demographic information and measures for overall impression, information amount, social presence, engagement, coolness & novelty and realism, and pre-existing attitudes toward online dating. For all the measures a 9-point Likert scale was employed except for cognitive response within overall impression, which used recall and recognition questions.
\n\n\tA multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to examine the effects of multi-modality format of online profile on participants’ perception toward the person, behavioral intention toward the person and website, and memory by recall and recognition questions. This analysis revealed a significant effect for modality, Wilks’ L = .90, F (12, 516) = 2.27, p < .01. See table 1 for univariate test result.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/OnlineDatingTab1.jpg\")
\n\tOne-way ANOVAs with the mediation indices yielded a significant effect for perceived information amount, social presence, coolness & novelty and engagement, but no significant effect was found for realism. Participants in the video condition rated significantly higher than their counterparts in the audio condition and text-only conditions (see Table 2). Therefore, our hypotheses 1, 2, 3 and 4 were supported while hypothesis 5 for realism was not supported.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/OnlineDatingTab2.jpg\")
\n\tHowever, a 2 (Gender) X 3 (Profile Modality) analysis of variance revealed a main effect for gender, with males reporting significantly more experienced realism (M = 5.30, SE = .10) than females (M = 4.64, SE = .11), F (1, 260) = 18.38, p <. 001. No main effect for profile modality on perceived realism was revealed, F (2, 260) = 0. 43, p = .65. A Gender X Profile modality interaction was obtained, F (2, 260) = 4.40, p < .05.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/OnlineDatingFig1.jpg\")
\n\tIn summary, as the media richness of the website profile increases so does the perceptions regarding the amount of information presented, the social presence of the actor/actress to the user, the engagement with the website and the users opinion that the website was cool and novel. As each of the mediators (information amount, social presence, engagement, coolness & novelty) increase so does the perception towards the actor / actress along with the behavioral intention towards both the website and actor / actress. Additionally, as the perceived amount of information provided increases so does the amount of social presence of the actor/actress to the user, the engagement with the website and the users opinion that the website was cool and novel. Furthermore, it appears that the interplay of modality and gender can have significant effects on users' perceived realism. Furthermore, if a user was in the priming condition their overall impressed formed will be less than the non-priming condition. Finally, as the media richness of the website increase so does the overall impressions formed.
\n\n\tAlthough the impact of media richness has been studied in other online contexts (e.g., online news websites), the present study of the effects of media richness was in the online dating environment. For future research, the study’s findings should be extended to the real-world online dating websites and non-college users. Also, the utilization of specific media within the combinations merit future investigation. The present study is the first to examine the impacts of media richness on online dating profile, and offers researchers unique insights into the complex issues of online self-presentation tools, which not only reflect but also have the potential to shape how people form overall impression for one another.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31072" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-20T23:29:59-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33415, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "c0fa81f1-0f9d-4c50-a9db-8b4e3bcd5b26", "siteSettingsId": 33415, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21145, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Technology, tweens, and the relationship between techspeak and english grammer", "slug": "technology-tweens-and-the-relationship-between-techspeak-and-english-gramme", "uri": "medialab/research-article/technology-tweens-and-the-relationship-between-techspeak-and-english-gramme", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:53-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:11:19-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33415, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/technology-tweens-and-the-relationship-between-techspeak-and-english-gramme", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/technology-tweens-and-the-relationship-between-techspeak-and-english-gramme", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41290": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Drew Cingel", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tWithin the past decade, cell phones have become a ubiquitous accessory, with more and more adolescents using them as the primary mode of communication. Along with it has grown the culture of text messaging, with its short, terse exchanges, abbreviations, and grammatical compromises. Gone are the days of carefully composed e-mail messages. If the bulk of an adolescent’s textual exchanges occurs in the form of short text messages, might it adversely affect his/her sense of written grammar?
\n\n\tRQ1: What is the relationship between the amount of text messages a child sends and receives and their scores on a grammar test?
\n\tRQ2: What is the relationship between average amount of errors made while text messaging and perceived utility of text messaging?
\n\tRQ3: Do the different styles of error common in text messages (word and structural error) have different effects on grammar assessment scores of children?
\n\tRQ4: What is the relationship between time spent online and a child’s grammar assessment score?
\n\tBased on previous research on Uses and Gratifications Theory (Palmgreen, Wenner, & Rosengren, 1985), especially regarding perceived utility of technologies, we hypothesized the following:
\n\n\tH1a: Adolescents who score high on the utility of text messaging measure will report higher rates of text messaging.
\n\tH1b: Adolescents who score high on the utility of instant messaging measure will report spending more time on instant messaging.
\n\tConsidering tenets of Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986) and Observational Learning:
\n\tH2: Children who receive more text messages from their peers will report higher levels of sent message error in their text messages.
\n\tH3: Children who self-report receiving a high number of errors will also report committing a large number of errors.
\n\tFinally, Salomon and Perkins (1989) proposed a model that provides an explanation for why children are able to use the grammatical compromises of techspeak in normal English writing. Called Low-Road Theory of Transfer of Learning, this led to the following hypotheses:
\n\tH4: The more time one spends instant messaging each day, the lower their scores on a grammar assessment.
\n\tH5: The more one receives or sends texts each day, the lower their scores on a grammar assessment.
\n\tH6: The more errors a child reports making in sent text messages, the lower their score on a grammar assessment.
\n\n\t542 children in grades 6, 7, and 8 were administered a grammar test at the beginning of the study. This test included questions regarding verb/noun agreement, use of apostrophes, use of correct tense, and use of possessives. Upon completion children were given a survey to complete at home. This survey asked children questions about their attitudes toward and usage of text messaging and instant messaging, and their use of techspeak when text messaging, in addition to demographic questions. Children were required to complete both parts, the grammar test and the take-home survey, in order to be included in the study. In all, 228 participants were included in the study.
\n\n\tResults indicated significant support for the main hypotheses regarding the negative relationship between text messaging, techspeak, and scores on the grammar assessment. All relationships were significant at a p-value of less than .05. A multiple regression analysis found that a child’s grade and the average amount of sent error in text messages accounts for 12.7% of all variance in grammar assessment scores. Going further, the average amount of word error in text messages (use of abbreviations, omissions of non-essential letters, and homophones) accounted for 10.7% of all variance. In addition, the average amount of error in sent text messages was found to mediate the relationship between average amount of error in received text messages and grammar assessment score.
\n\n\tResults of this study support the vast amounts of anecdotal evidence from teachers, parents, and administrators; techspeak is negatively related to proper use of Standard English Grammar. Children who reported using higher levels of abbreviations, non-essential letter omissions, and homophones scored significantly lower on the administered grammar assessment than children who did not use such grammatical compromises while text messaging.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31072" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-20T23:19:20-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33407, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "4ce55abb-212f-438b-81c7-ffb16173b833", "siteSettingsId": 33407, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21143, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Modalities in health communications: A study evaluating the effectiveness of breast self-examination", "slug": "modalities-in-health-communications-a-study-evaluating-the-effectiveness-of", "uri": "medialab/research-article/modalities-in-health-communications-a-study-evaluating-the-effectiveness-of", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:52-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:11:16-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33407, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/modalities-in-health-communications-a-study-evaluating-the-effectiveness-of", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/modalities-in-health-communications-a-study-evaluating-the-effectiveness-of", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41279": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Akshaya Sreenivasan", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41280": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Ruobing Li", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41281": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Soo Jung Hong", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tA four condition between subject experiment (Stimulus: Breast self –examination messages) was conducted to test the impact of modalities on health communication messages. Results indicated that video based modalities were particularly useful in predicting the self –efficacy of the individuals as well as creating better attitudes towards breast self- examination messages. Similarly, memory acted as a mediator between the modality cues, and the self –efficacy of the individual to confidently perform breast self –examinations correctly.
\n\n\tFor the current study, we tested the following hypothesis. Additionally, we also tested the mediation effect of the variables memory, vividness, comprehension, and distraction.
\n\n\tH1-Modalities will affect the individual’s self -efficacy towards BSE messages.
\n\n\tH2- Modalities will affect the individual’s attitude towards BSE messages.
\n\n\tH3- Modalities will affect the individual’s memory in recalling BSE messages.
\n\n\tH4- Modality will affect the vividness of BSE messages.
\n\n\tH5-Modalities will affect the way the user comprehend BSE messages.
\n\n\tH6-Modalities will affect the way the individuals are distracted towards BSE messages.
\n\n\tAn electronic between subjects experiment using an online questionnaire was administered to collect the data for the study. Since the study required only female participants, they were recruited through an online request form sent to different introductory level courses in various departments at a large co-ed university. The participants were given 6 points or 2 extra credits for their participation in the study. Alternatively, if the participants declined to participate, they were given an article to review for equal number of extra credits. Participation was purely based on individual interest, and the participants had the liberty to quit the survey at any given time. Also, in accordance with the rules of the institutional review board (IRB), participants were recruited only after they agreed to take part of their free will. An informed consent form along with the basic information about the study was provided to the participants to read. The participants could access the survey from any computer that was connected to the Internet. The link for the experiment was hosted on SurveyMonkey, a popular online surveying tool. The survey link was active for a period of 5 days that comprised of 3 weekdays, and 2 weekend days.
\n\n\tH1 which stated that there will be a relationship between modalities and the self- efficacy in performing BSE was supported F (3, 71) = 4.32, p = .007, ηp2 = .15. Post-hoc analyses showed that participants in picture plus text condition (M=5.53), and video condition (M=5.33) had better self-efficacy than participants in picture only condition (M=4.40).
\n\n\tH2 which stated a relationship between modality and attitude towards BSE messages was partially supported F (3, 71) = 1.13, p = .32, ηp2 = .05. Independent t-test was performed to compare the mean difference of attitude in specific two conditions (picture only vs. picture plus text). Results showed a significant difference between these two conditions, t(40) = -2.03, p = .049, d = -0.63.
\n\n\tH3 stating the relationship between modality and memory was partially supported F (3, 69) = 2.15, p = .10, ηp2 = .09, while the relationship between the variables vividness, comprehension, distraction with modality were not supported.
\n\n\tIn order to test H3a, H4a, H5a and H6a that stated that memory, vividness, comprehension and distraction will affect the individual’s self-efficacy towards BSE messages, we performed a Simple Linear Regression test. Regression analysis showed a significant relationship between memory, and self-efficacy, b = .23, t (71) = 2.38, p = .02, and between vividness, and self-efficacy, b = .24, t (72) = 2.29, p = .03. Besides, a partially significant relationship was found between distraction, and self-efficacy, b = -.25, t (71) = -1.98, p = .05. However, no significant relationship was found between comprehension and self- efficacy, b = .15, t (73) = 1.31, p = .19. Therefore, H3a and H4a were supported, H5a was not supported and H6a was partially supported.
\n\n\tMediation analysis using Indirect Macros revealed a significant relationship between modalities and self- efficacy via memory. Bootstrapping results showed that the indirect effect through memory was significant, b = .41, 95% C.I. from .07 to .99, SE = .23, which suggested that video modality strengthened participants? memory of BSE messages, which in turn, led to greater self-efficacy towards the BSE messages compared to text based modalities. While the other three mediators; vividness, comprehension and distraction did not show any significant effect.
\n\n\tThe significant effect we found between modality, and self –efficacy can be attributed to the fact that there could have been a high degree of central information processing involved while studying the BSE messages. According to the elaboration likelihood model (ELM), women process most of the information via the central route. In other words, they need more cues, and details in order to be persuaded. Hence, the results that we found are coherent with the ELM assumption. That is picture plus text condition, and video condition presented more information to effectively perform BSE messages compared to picture only condition. The other interesting finding from our study was the effect of memory. When information is presented via multiple mediums the chances are that they are effectively processed and recalled. This is the tenant of the media richness theory. Hence, participants, in the video condition had better memory, or in other words, they were confident to recall messages. Once there was confidence in recalling messages, the participants felt more efficacious to perform breast self-examination correctly. Media richness theory can once again be recalled to explain the effect of video modalities on creating better attitudes towards BSE messages than those in text conditions.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31066" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-20T23:12:05-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33399, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "f60e728e-fd0b-470a-bf3a-65cafc39368e", "siteSettingsId": 33399, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21141, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The effects of source cues in online news on credibility perception", "slug": "the-effects-of-source-cues-in-online-news-on-credibility-perception", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-effects-of-source-cues-in-online-news-on-credibility-perception", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:50-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:11:14-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33399, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-effects-of-source-cues-in-online-news-on-credibility-perception", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-effects-of-source-cues-in-online-news-on-credibility-perception", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41267": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Eun Go", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41268": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Eunhwa Jung", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41269": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Mu Wu", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThe Internet has provided tremendous amounts of information, which has been traditionally delivered by offline media, available to people quickly and easily (Liszka, Steyer, & Hueston, 2006). On the other hand, previous research has found that different interface cues influence users’ perception towards the online news contents. Among various interface cues, bandwagon and authority cues have been consistently found to have significant effects on media users’ perception on online content. However, in considering the effect of social distance on content perception, it is important to examine the effect of identity as a source characteristic, which differentiates the degree of social distance, on online news content evaluation. To examine the effects of these three types of heuristic cues in the online news consumption context, the current study conducted a 2 (authority cue: low vs. high) x 2 (bandwagon cue: low vs. high) x 2 (identity cue: in-group vs. out-group) online experiment.
\n\n\tH1: Higher level of bandwagon cue would generate more positive evaluation on the news story in terms of perceived a) credibility, b) liking, c) quality, and d) representativeness.
\n\tH2: Higher level of authority cue would generate more positive evaluation on the news story in terms of perceived a) credibility, b) liking, c) quality and d) representativeness.
\n\tH3: In-group identity cue would generate more positive evaluation of the news story in terms of perceived a) credibility, b) liking, c) quality, and d) representativeness.
\n\tH4: The combination of high authority cue and high bandwagon cue will lead to higher perceived a) credibility, b) liking, c) quality, and d) representativeness perception than other combinations.
\n\tRQ1: Are there interaction effects among identity, bandwagon, and authority cues on perceived a) credibility, b) liking, c) quality, and d) representativeness?
\n\n\tThe current study was a 2 (authority cue: low vs. high) x 2 (bandwagon cue: low vs. high) x 2 (identity cue: in-group vs. out-group) online between-subject experiment. All participants (N = 120) were randomly assigned to one of the eight conditions. For high-authority condition, we showed a simulated “Chicago Tribune” webpage with the news story, whereas for low-authority condition, we showed a simulated webpage of “National Enquirer” with the news story. Bandwagon cue was manipulated by changing the number of recommenders of the news article. Identity was manipulated by differentiating university affiliations of the recommenders. Participants in in-group condition were told that the recommenders are students from Penn State University, while participants in out-group condition were told that the recommenders are students from Ohio State University. Perceived credibility, liking, quality, and representativeness were measured as dependent variables.
\n\n\tTo test hypothesis 1, one-way ANOVAs were conducted to examine the effect of bandwagon cue on perceived credibility, liking, quality, and representativeness. However, there were no significant effects of bandwagon cue on perceived credibility, F (1, 113) = .93, p = .33, perceived liking, F (1, 113) = .72, p = .40, perceived quality, F (1, 113) = .24, p = .62, and perceived representative, F (1, 113) = .001, p = .97. Therefore, hypothesis 1 was not supported.
\n\n\tTo test hypothesis 2, The result of one-way ANOVA test showed that there was a marginally significant main effect for authority cue on perceived quality, F (1, 113) = 3.93, p = .05. However, no significant effects of authority cue on perceived credibility, F (1, 113) = .84, p = .36, perceived liking, F (1, 113) = .01, p = .91, and perceived representative, F (1, 113) = 1.54, p = .22 were found. Therefore, hypothesis 2 was partially supported.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/gjw_Table_03.jpg\")
\n\tTo test Hypothesis 3, . The results revealed that there are no significant main effect for identity cue on all four sets of measures for online news content perception: perceived credibility, F (1, 113) = 2.87, p = .09, perceived liking, F (1, 113) = .11, p = .74, perceived quality, F (1, 113) = .36, p = .54, and perceived representative, F (1, 113) = 2.22, p = .14. Therefore, hypothesis 3 was not supported.
\n\n\tTwo-way ANOVA was conducted to test hypothesis 4 that predicts the interaction effect between bandwagon and authority cues on online news content perceptions. A significant interaction effect of bandwagon and authority cues on perceived credibility, F (1, 113) = 9.33, p < .01 was found.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/gjw_Table_04.jpg\")
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/gjw_Figure01.jpg\")
\n\tTo answer the Research Question 1, we examined the interaction effect among bandwagon, authority, and identity cues through conducting a three-way ANOVA. The result indicated a significant three-way interaction effect of these three cues on perceived credibility, F (1, 113) = 4.77, p < .05
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/gjw_Table_05.jpg\")
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/gjw_Figure02.jpg\")
\n\tThe current study revealed that authority cue (e.g., news agency in this study) has a significant direct effect on users’ evaluation of online news in terms of news quality. A significant two-way interaction effects between bandwagon and authority cues on perceived credibility suggested a positive combinationary effect of these two types of cues. Moreover, the significant three-way interaction among these three types of cues indicated that the interaction effects between bandwagon and authority cues on news credibility evaluation tend to work as a function of identity cue. While confirming the importance of identity cue in online news judgment, three-way interaction effects confirmed the co-occurrence of heuristic and systematic processing, and suggested that people process news systematically when the recommenders are out-group members, whereas they process news heuristically when the recommenders are in-group members.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31066" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-20T23:05:35-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33389, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "1b54c816-d298-4dd8-9ee5-435343b6020f", "siteSettingsId": 33389, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21139, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Examining psychological effects of heuristic cues on users’ attitudes on a product review website", "slug": "examining-psychological-effects-of-heuristic-cues-on-users-attitudes-on-a-p", "uri": "medialab/research-article/examining-psychological-effects-of-heuristic-cues-on-users-attitudes-on-a-p", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:48-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:11:11-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33389, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/examining-psychological-effects-of-heuristic-cues-on-users-attitudes-on-a-p", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/examining-psychological-effects-of-heuristic-cues-on-users-attitudes-on-a-p", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41251": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Hyang Sook Kim", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41252": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Pamela Brubaker", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41253": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Andrew Kegerise", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41254": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Kiwon Seo", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tReliance on product review websites for helping consumers make purchasing decisions is becoming ever more prevalent. Previous literature suggests that design features like source attributions (e.g., ratings from an editor, other users, or website) and visual signals that indicate quality rating (e.g., star ratings) can exert effects on attitude formation among those consumers (e.g., Chen & Xie, 2008; Chevalier & Mayzlin, 2006). In addition, a set of icons that allows website users to share information is also a common feature available in the product review websites. However, evidence of the effect of such a sharing application is quite primitive. Based on Sundar’s MAIN model (2008), this study is to explore the underlying mechanisms guiding psychological effects of various technological features found on online product review websites.
\n\n\tH1: Website users will show more favorable attitude toward a product/website when they perceive a computer/system as the source of product review information than when they perceive an expert (e.g., editor) as the source.
\n\n\tH2: Website users will show more favorable attitudes toward a product/website when they perceive other users as the source of product review information than when perceiving an expert (e.g., editor) as the source.
\n\n\tRQ1. Will the source, other users or the computer/system itself exhibit a more powerful influence on the decision-making processes users make on product review websites?
\n\n\tRQ2. Do the visual cues of both star ratings and source attribution interact with each other in relation to the decision-making processes that occur on product review websites?
\n\n\tH3. Participants that read a product review with the presence of sharing applications will show a greater intention to share product review information when the information is attributed to an expert opposed to a website.
\n\n\tH4. Participants who noticed the availability of sharing applications on a product review website will have a greater intention to share product review information when the information is attributed to other people instead of a website.
\n\n\tH5. Sense of agency will mediate the relationship between presence of sharing applications and sharing intention.
\n\n\tH6.Credibility will mediate the relationship between the authority, machine, bandwagon or identity heuristics and their influence on users’ judgment of product reviews and the website.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Figure1-Product_Review_Website.jpg\")
\n\tResearch questions were explored using a 2 (star rating: 4 stars vs. 1 star) × 3 (source information: expert reviewer’s vs. other users’ vs. website rating) × 2 (sharing options: presence vs. absence) between-participants online experiment. Four hundred seventy-eight undergraduate students were exposed to identical product reviews for a haptic cell phone, with variations in rating cues, source cues, and sharing options after completion of an online consent form and pre-questionnaire including their familiarity with product review websites as well as haptic cell phones.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Figure2-Product_Review_Website.jpg\")
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Figure3-Product_Review_Website.jpg\")
\n\tWhen they finished reviewing the screenshot of the webpage, they were asked to proceed with the remainder of the questionnaire including measures of product/webpage attitudes, purchase/sharing intentions, perceived authority/bandwagon/objectiveness, sense of control and community, perceived credibility of product review, and task involvement. At this time participants were directed not to go back and examine the review.
\n\n\tThe findings from the present study indicate that source will affect users’ decision-making processes through perceptions of heuristics on a product review website. In particular, an expert source of the review information exhibited the greater effect on participants’ attitudes toward the website than other user as source. Furthermore, star ratings as a value-laden cue also clearly showed their positive effects on not only users’ attitudes toward the product and website but also their purchase intention. Meanwhile, presence of sharing applications as an additional heuristic cue also showed a positive effect on users’ attitudes toward the product.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Table1-Product_Review_Website.jpg\")
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Table2-Product_Review_Website.jpg\")
\n\tTwo perceived heuristics – authority and bandwagon- played significant roles to conjunction between interface cues of reviewers, sharing applications and star ratings. Neither source nor value-laden cues resulted in the mediating effect of perception of heuristics and credibility on the judgment process.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Figure4-Product_Review_Website.jpg\")
\n\tThe current study showed that presence of sharing options not only contributed to building credibility toward the review website but also lead to more favorable product attitudes. The findings also demonstrated that the simple presence of sharing affordances leads to increases in perceptions of authority and bandwagon heuristics. The possibility of sharing the product review could lead participants to infer the information is credible and thereby render the website authority. The presence of sharing options may have played the role of a ‘seal,’ which induced perceptions of authority on the website (Sundar, Xu, & Oeldorf-Hirsch, 2009). In addition, the presence of sharing options lead to increased bandwagon perceptions, suggesting this affordance cues perceptions of endorsement from others or social assessments of product quality.
\n\n\tThe present study also suggests that people largely make decisions about product quality depending on the number of rating stars received on a review website. Bandwagon perceptions mediated the relationship between star rating and product and web page attitudes, and purchase intent. Because participants believed that the number of stars was a visual cue indicating aggregation of product reviews regardless of review source, they could perceive bandwagon power from the star ratings.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31066" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-20T22:57:11-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33381, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "7807480d-1e14-4ff9-8245-5cdd23d949f5", "siteSettingsId": 33381, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21137, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Media modality effects on perceptions of china: A study of text and video frames", "slug": "media-modality-effects-on-perceptions-of-china-a-study-of-text-and-video-fr", "uri": "medialab/research-article/media-modality-effects-on-perceptions-of-china-a-study-of-text-and-video-fr", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:47-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:11:09-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33381, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/media-modality-effects-on-perceptions-of-china-a-study-of-text-and-video-fr", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/media-modality-effects-on-perceptions-of-china-a-study-of-text-and-video-fr", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41237": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Steve Bien-Aime", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41238": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Ruobing Li", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41239": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Lian Ma", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\t
\n\n\tIn order to examine media modality effects on the public’s perceptions of foreign countries, an online experimental study was conducted among college students. Participants were randomly assigned into three groups, with one group being exposed to a text-only news story of China, one group being exposed to a video story of China, and the third group being given no news exposure to serve as a baseline. The study also examined different modality effects on Chinese and non-Chinese people. Implications and limitations of the study were discussed.
\n\n\tRQ1: For people, controlling for their levels of following international political news, what is the relationship between media modalities, nationality and perceptions of China?
\n\n\tRQ2: For non-Chinese people, controlling for their levels of following international political news, what is the relationship between media modalities and perceptions of China?
\n\n\tThree hypotheses to RQ2:
\n\tH1: A negatively framed text-only article will negatively impact China’s reputation.
\n\tH2: A negatively framed video will negatively impact China’s reputation.
\n\n\tH3: Negative text framing will have a different effect on China’s reputation from negative video framing.
\n\n\tAn online experiment was conducted among participants (N=67) recruited from college students. An original AP story about the imprisonment of the Nobel Peace Prize winner Liu Xiaobo was used as the video stimulus material. The text stimulus material was created by taking verbatim from the video. Media modality was the independent variable (nominal) and country image was the dependent variable (interval). The measurement for country image was a 17-item scale, using a 7-point Likert scale with 1 being strongly disagree and 7 being strongly agree. One control variable was the level of following international political news (interval), using a 7-point Likert scale. There was one moderating variable (nominal), i.e. nationality (Chinese or non-Chinese). The procedure: a pretest was conducted (Cronbach’s α = 0.92) before the actual online experiment. Participants received a survey monkey link from their emails. After clicking the link, they first saw a consent form, questions about demographics, and then a manipulation check question. They were then randomly assigned into one of the three condition groups (text, video, or nothing). After receiving treatments, they filled out an online questionnaire about their perceptions of China. At the end, they filled out questions asking whether they were Americans, whether they were from China, and the average amount of time spent on news consumption in a week. Finally, a 3×2 factorial ANOVA analysis and a one-way ANOVA analysis were used to analyze the data.
\n\n\tRQ1: A significant interaction effect of different media modalities on China’s reputation was found between Chinese people and non-Chinese people, F (2, 67) = 5.30, p < .01. (See Table 1 and Figure 1). For the Chinese, video had a more negative effect on their perceptions of China (M= 3.53) compared with those who were exposed to the test (M= 4.81) and the control group (M= 4.78). For the non-Chinese, video (M= 4.27) had a rather positive effect on their perceptions of China than the control group (M= 3.97) and those who were exposed to the text (M= 3.80).
\n\n\tTable 1 Interaction Effect of Type of Media Modalities and Nationality on Country Reputation
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-04-20_at_4.02.21_PM.png\")
\n\tFigure 1 Interaction Effect of Type of Media Modalities and Nationality on Country Reputation)
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-04-20_at_4.02.26_PM.png\")
\n\tRQ2: For the non-Chinese, a significant main effect of the effect of type of media modalities on perceptions of China was found, F (2, 56) = 3.320, p < .05. For non-Chinese, different types of media modalities had different effects on people’s perceptions of China. (See Table 2)
\n\n\tTable 2: Main Effect of Type of Media Modalities on China’s Reputation
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-04-20_at_4.02.31_PM.png\")
\n\tH1: not supported as the text group (M= 3.79) was not significantly different from the control group (M= 4.04). (See Table 3 and Figure 2)
\n\n\tH2: not supported as the video group (M= 4.26) was not significantly different from the control group (M= 4.04). (See Table 3 and Figure 2)
\n\n\tH3: supported as the text group (M= 3.79) was significantly different from the video group (M= 4.26). (See Table 3 and Figure 2)
\n\n\tTable 3: Means and F-value of Country Reputation as a Function of Media Modalities
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-04-20_at_4.02.36_PM.png\")
\n\tFigure 2: Main effect of Type of Media Modalities on Country reputation.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Aime_et_al._2.jpg\")
\n\tThe findings show that different media modalities have a different framing effect on people’s perception of China. For the Chinese, reading a negative news story of China is not going to change their preexistent beliefs about China given they were well informed about China. For the non-Chinese, as they may have already had a negative frame of China from the media, i.e. “Communist China”, they were not impacted by the text news about China. However, when they watched scenes of Chinese people protesting on the street, they might have been impressed that the Chinese people actually have some kind of political freedom. Therefore, they rather rated their perceptions of China as being more positive.
\n\n\tThe finding that different media modality has different effect on perception was consistent with previous studies about modality and information perception. The current study extends modality effects on perception to public’s perception of foreign countries. However, the study was limited in terms of sample size, experimental setting, and the nature of the stimulus material being not negative enough.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31066" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-20T22:53:57-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33371, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "ad2fd321-9048-43dd-aef6-c9f1339363cd", "siteSettingsId": 33371, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21135, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Exploring the relationship between media source and current events knowledge", "slug": "exploring-the-relationship-between-media-source-and-current-events-knowledg", "uri": "medialab/research-article/exploring-the-relationship-between-media-source-and-current-events-knowledg", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:45-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:11:05-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33371, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/exploring-the-relationship-between-media-source-and-current-events-knowledg", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/exploring-the-relationship-between-media-source-and-current-events-knowledg", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41218": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Lauren Dupont", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41220": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Rebecca Edgar", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41223": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Katie Mayer", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41224": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Michelle McMurty", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tCollege students are an important target sample of news use because they fraternize with different news media sources during their college years. The college years are a period of socialization to using different media, which provide news and information about adult roles. Previous research suggests that the news medium or combination of media that college students use in their college years may influence later political awareness, knowledge, and activity. Specifically, this study examines the relationship between usage of a specific medium source usage and the level of current events knowledge.
\n\n\tThe research question led to the following hypotheses:
\n\n\tH1: Different news media sources have a differential impact on knowledge, attitudes and opinions regarding current affairs.
\n\n\tH2: The degree of usage of a specific medium will influence individual knowledge. Specifically, greater the print media use, higher the knowledge of current events, whereas broadcast news viewing will be negatively associated with knowledge.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-04-20_at_3.55.24_PM.png\")
\n\tH3: Demographic differences will affect level of knowledge of current affairs. Generally, political science majors will have a higher score than other majors.
\n\n\tA total of ninety-seven respondents were randomly chosen and administered a paper-and-pencil survey. The survey instrument had questions pertaining to demographics, specific media use and media preference for information seeking. In addition, it also had a number of current event questions in the areas of local, national and international news, as well as business, sports and entertainment.
\n\n\tA 'Knowledge' index was created by summing up the correct answers to the current events questions. This was used as a measure of knowledge of current events. Also, an 'Overall Feeling' index for each medium was created by combining the responses to questions concerning how often respondents use each media source and their preference for a particular media source for information gathering.
\n\n\tH1: Supported. Different news media sources have a differential impact on knowledge, attitudes and opinions regarding current affairs.
\n\n\tH2: Partially supported. A positive correlation between newspapers and knowledge was found; there was a negative correlation between radio and knowledge. However, there were no significant findings with regard to television and magazines.
\n\n\tH3: Not supported. Political science majors did not have significantly higher scores than other majors.
\n\n\tThe data lend support to the notion that the more one uses a particular medium, the more they prefer it as a source of information. There are also some interesting implications for researchers as well as practitioners. For example, radio seems to be associated with entertainment and appears to be ineffective as a source of information. Newspapers, on the other hand, are reckoned to be the best sources of information. Since this study examined the efficacy of different media, an important direction for future research would be to examine the computer, or more specifically, the Internet, as a source of information.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31066" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-20T22:49:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33361, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "24184444-d75a-4340-b291-33220ad3e505", "siteSettingsId": 33361, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21133, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The mediating role of message engagement on h1n1", "slug": "the-mediating-role-of-message-engagement-on-h1n1", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-mediating-role-of-message-engagement-on-h1n1", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:43-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:45:21-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33361, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-mediating-role-of-message-engagement-on-h1n1", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-mediating-role-of-message-engagement-on-h1n1", "subtitle": "pandemic behaviors in the extended parallel process model", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41205": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "David DeIuliis", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41206": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Carolyn Donaldson", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41207": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Courtney Herring", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41208": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Omar Maglalang", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThe H1N1 flu pandemic is a timely health issue. In June 2009, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared that a new strain of swine-originated flu virus was responsible for the 2009 flu pandemic, with nearly 30,000 confirmed cases worldwide. As a way to combat the spread of disease, influenza vaccines have historically protected people from contracting the virus. The goal of this study was to examine behavioral outcomes such as vaccination intent after exposure to emotional health messages.
\n\n\tRQ1: For adults, controlling for Internet health usage, perceived health issue knowledge, and previous exposure to the virus (H1N1), what is the relationship between fear appeals (fear-fear and fear-hope) and the level of engagement?
\n\tHypothesis 1: A dual fear-hope message will result in higher engagement for respondents than a dual fear-fear message
\n\tRQ2: For adults, controlling for Internet health usage, perceived health issue knowledge, and previous exposure to the virus (H1N1), what is the relationship between fear appeals (fear-fear and fear-hope) and behavioral intention?
\n\tHypothesis 2: A dual fear-hope message will result in higher behavioral intention than a dual fear-fear message
\n\tRQ3: For adults, controlling for message engagement, what is the relationship between perceived threat and behavioral outcomes?
\n\tRQ4: For adults, controlling for message engagement, what is the relationship between perceived efficacy and behavioral outcomes?
\n\tRQ5: For adults, controlling for message engagement, what is the relationship between severity and behavioral outcomes?
\n\tRQ6: For adults, controlling for message engagement, what is the relationship between susceptibility and behavioral outcomes?
\n\tRQ7: For adults, controlling for message engagement, what is the relationship between self-efficacy and behavioral outcomes?
\n\tRQ8: For adults, controlling for message engagement, what is the relationship between response efficacy and behavioral outcomes?
\n\tThe study was originally designed as a between-subjects experiment examining the dual process of fear-hope appeals and its relationship to engagement. Manipulation checks from the questionnaire found that fear and hope were not statistically significant. The study then moved on to analysis of correlational data with perceived threat and efficacy as independent variables, message engagement as a possible mediating variable, and behavioral outcomes as dependent variables. Using the Extended Parallel Process Model as a theoretical framework, the study manipulated health messages pertaining to the H1N1 virus and examined how fear appeals impact user cognitions to motivate health actions.
\n\n\tThe results of these analyses indicated variability within the correlations that have illustrated protection motivation, defensive motivation, and likelihood of vaccination in the Extended Parallel Process Model.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Figure01_H1N1.jpg\")
\n\tRespondent perception of H1N1 as a threat was highly correlated with protection motivation, which includes self-protective behaviors and taking precautions against the H1N1 virus. The perceived severity of H1N1, as opposed to one’s feeling of susceptibility, is highly related to the outcome of protection from the threat. However, this relationship can be mediated by evoking a media message that is emotionally engaging.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Figure02_H1N1.jpg\")
\n\tRespondent perception of severity of the H1N1 pandemic and perception of an available and effective vaccine is related to likelihood of vaccination. Feelings of engagement can also predict vaccination intent.
\n\n\tFinally, respondent perception of severity, susceptibility, and feelings of ease about getting a vaccine are highly correlated with defensive motivation, which includes talking to others about the H1N1 pandemic. Respondent feelings of high emotional engagement after viewing a health message are also highly correlated with defensive motivation.
\n\n\tOverall, the results show that, with regard to the H1N1 virus threat, when individuals consider a threat severe, they are more likely to act in self-protective manner. The study also found that individuals rely on cognitive evaluations of the health message, all of which is consistent with other studies using the EPPM framework. The main findings from this study are consistent with other studies of the EPPM and conclude that when engagement is added to the EPPM model as a mediating variable, or even as a predictor of certain behavioral outcomes, individual behaviors regarding the particular health threat can be impacted. The new evidence of engagement as a mediating and predicting variable in the EPPM model advances this well-established measurement tool and arms public health communicators with valuable results for better behavioral outcomes.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31066" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-20T22:46:31-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33351, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "65360016-a1f5-46a7-8eb8-3291fc25cbf3", "siteSettingsId": 33351, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21131, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Are graphics helpful in comprehension of online news?", "slug": "are-graphics-helpful-in-comprehension-of-online-news", "uri": "medialab/research-article/are-graphics-helpful-in-comprehension-of-online-news", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:42-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:10:59-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33351, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/are-graphics-helpful-in-comprehension-of-online-news", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/are-graphics-helpful-in-comprehension-of-online-news", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41189": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "James Berry", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41190": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Kristy McCarville", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41191": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Michael Wilson", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41192": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sandra Wirth", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tOnline news sites are becoming increasingly popular and familiar since they benefit the reader by having no subscription costs, ease of access and indexing, among other advantages. It is also possible to use different technological features such as animated graphics to secure the attention of the reader. Since traditional newspapers do not have this advantage, it is felt that if animation does increase the comprehension and interest in news stories, then online news will increasingly gain audiences over traditional newspapers. This study examines the effects of animated graphics in online news stories on memory.
\n\n\tFindings from previous studies led to the following hypotheses:
\n\n\tH1: Animated graphics will help maintain the interest of the subject, such that those participants who read an online news story with animated graphics will perceive the story to be significantly more interesting than those participants who read the same story without animated graphics.
\n\n\tAccording to the Elaboration Likelihood Model, the central route to attitude change occurs when a person has the ability or motivation to carefully scrutinize a message. However, when a person does not have the ability or motivation, or finds the message irrelevant, attitude change occurs via the peripheral route, as a result of some simple cues (such as attractive source, graphics, humor etc.) in the persuasion context. This leads to the following hypothesis:
\n\n\tH2: Participants will perceive the presence of animated graphics as peripheral cues when reading irrelevant stories, and will consequently rate the stories to be more enjoyable and interesting than subjects in the text-only condition.
\n\n\tThirty-two participants took part in a between-participants experiment. They were exposed to two online news stories that were designed to evoke neither strong positive or negative reactions. However, one of the stories was of great personal relevance while the other was designed to be irrelevant to typical college-aged students. Half the participants read the stories in text-only form while the other half read the same content with the presence of animated graphics. Both the experimental conditions were identical in content but differed slightly in terms of layout. After participants read the page, their memory for story content was measured by a battery of recall and recognition questions administered via a paper-and-pencil questionnaire.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/graphics_1.jpg\")
\n\tH1: Not supported. The results indicate that comprehension was about the same for participants in both conditions.
\n\n\tH2: Not supported. The results indicate that participants in the animated graphics condition did not perceive the stories as being significantly more enjoyable and interesting than those participants in the text-only condition.
\n\n\tWhile the results indicate the presence of animated graphics have no effect on either comprehension or liking of online news content, future research should address other issues such as the combination of different types of modalities (such as text-only, text-audio, text-graphics etc.) as well as different types of news stories.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31066" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-20T22:43:11-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33347, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "e12468f3-9b99-469e-8f37-e185d0a007a1", "siteSettingsId": 33347, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21129, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Perceptual effects of modality in on-line news", "slug": "perceptual-effects-of-modality-in-on-line-news", "uri": "medialab/research-article/perceptual-effects-of-modality-in-on-line-news", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:41-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:10:57-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33347, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/perceptual-effects-of-modality-in-on-line-news", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/perceptual-effects-of-modality-in-on-line-news", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41178": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Rebecca Edgar", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tWhile technological advances have altered and transformed existing modes of communication, the question about the different effects of these modes still remains unclear. Research has documented positive effects by demonstrating that humans readily form relationships with multimedia computers by perceiving them to be more human-like than other traditional means of communication. Other researchers have documented negative effects by showing that modality alone is not sufficient to positively alter information and knowledge transfer. The present study attempts to contribute further to this body of research by examining the effects of modality on audience perceptions of news content viewed through an on-line news website.
\n\n\tSixty participants took part in a between-participants experiment. After participants were seated in front of a computer terminal, they were asked to switch on the monitor and go through the website that came up. Five sessions were run where each group of participants received a different condition of modality: text only, text with pictures, text with audio, text with audio and pictures, and text with video and pictures. The same news stories were displayed regardless of the modality assigned to the particular condition. After browsing through the website, participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire that included measures of their perceptions of the news content, as well as some control measures.
\n\n\tThe dependent measure of audience perception was divided into two factors called 'Quality' and 'Credibility.'
\n\n\tParticipants in the text only condition perceived the quality of content to be lower than did participants in the text and picture condition but higher than participants in both the audio and video conditions. Further, in analyzing the interaction effects between picture and audio, the results suggest that the combined effect of these two modalities results in lower perceptions of quality. Thus, while the picture alone did not negatively affect quality perceptions, the introduction of audio, in conjunction with the picture, negatively affected perceptions.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/online1.jpg\")
\n\tThere are two possible explanations for the findings reported above. First, partcipants' unfamiliarity with the combination of video-audio may have turned them off to the messages being conveyed through the site resulting in perceptions of lower quality. Second, the audio and video downloads may have acted as distractors to the overall content of the page. The results are of importance to both the news industry as well as website developers since they suggest that a combination of audio and video is detrimental towards the overall perception of the website.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31066" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-20T22:41:45-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33345, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "b42984d1-1d2c-4da8-9e8a-ebb0396364b0", "siteSettingsId": 33345, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21127, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Source effects in users' perception of online news", "slug": "source-effects-in-users-perception-of-online-news", "uri": "medialab/research-article/source-effects-in-users-perception-of-online-news", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:40-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:10:56-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33345, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/source-effects-in-users-perception-of-online-news", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/source-effects-in-users-perception-of-online-news", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": [], "researchAbstract": "\n\tDr. S. Shyam Sundar
\n\n\tSundar, S. S., & Nass, C. (1996, May). Source Effects in Users' Perception of Online News. Paper presented to the Communication & Technology Division at the 46th annual conference of the International Communication Association (ICA), Chicago.
\n\n\tThe recent growth of online communications has not only opened up a new channel for news delivery but also challenged scholarly understanding of such fundamental communication concepts as source, medium, and receiver. In the online news environment, there are at least four different types of sources - news editors, computers, other users, and the user himself or herself - that correspond to different elements of traditional linear communication process models. The purpose of the present study is to determine whether the the ontological distinctions between these four types of online news sources are psychologically meaningful. An experiment was designed to measure the perception of online news content as a function of online news source.
\n\n\tThe present investigation keeps content constant, and looks for differences in receivers' ratings of credibility, liking, quality, and representativeness of the content as a function of of the type of communication source through an experiment.
\n\n\tAll participants (N=64) in a between-participants experiment read six news stories each on an online service. A fourth of the participants were told that the six news stories were selected by news editors. Another one-fourth were told that the stories were selected by the computer terminal on which they were accessing the stories. Yet another one-fourth were told that the stories were selected by other audience members (or users) of the online news service. The final one-fourth were given a pseudo-selection task leading them to believe that the stories were chosen by the individual user (self). After reading each story, participants filled out a paper-and-pencil questionnaire evaluating their liking for-and the credibility, quality, and representativeness of-the news story they had just read.
\n\n\tThree different types of sources were identified-Visible (news editors), Autonomous (computer), and Receiver (other users, self). The results indicate that different communication sources attributed to an identical news story elicit different reactions to the same story. There was a consistently significant difference in subjects' ratings of liking, quality and representativeness between the two types of Receiver sources. When other audience members of the online service chose the news stories, participants liked the stories more than when they chose the stories themselves. There was also a consistently significant difference between Visible source and one of the Receiver sources. Participants gave significantly lower liking and quality ratings to stories selected by news editors than to identical stories selected by other users of the online service. There were however no significant differences in ratings between stories selected by news editors and those selected by subjects themselves. The Autonomous source made a difference to the quality ratings. Participants gave significantly higher quality ratings to news stories selected by the computer treminal than to the same stories selected by themselves. However, there were no significant differences in ratings of stories attributed to computers and other users. Nor were there any differences between ratings attributed to computer and news editors.
\n\n\tThe findings from this study indicate the presence of psychological differences on at least one of the four criteria between the four ontologically distinct communication sources. Most importantly, this study develops a typology of sources based on ontological distinctions, and argues for a closer consideration of the concept of \"source\" in communication research. The findings also put forth the argument that these distinctions are psychologically relevant by demonstrating that identical content attributed to different sources is perceived and evaluated differently by communication receivers.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31066" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-20T22:39:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33341, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "d3360dc1-bade-411e-abad-9671b62aa6b9", "siteSettingsId": 33341, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21125, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "If internet credibility is so iffy, then why the heavy use?", "slug": "if-internet-credibility-is-so-iffy-then-why-the-heavy-use", "uri": "medialab/research-article/if-internet-credibility-is-so-iffy-then-why-the-heavy-use", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:39-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:45:47-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33341, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/if-internet-credibility-is-so-iffy-then-why-the-heavy-use", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/if-internet-credibility-is-so-iffy-then-why-the-heavy-use", "subtitle": "The relationship between medium use and credibility.", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41167": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Carmen Stavrositu", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThe relationship between medium use and credibility has been unexplored.
\n\n\tJust because we use the Internet extensively, does it mean we think it is very credible?
\n\n\tThis study uses a large survey (N = 1089)
\n\n\tResults reveal that Internet credibility is predicted by both Internet and newspaper use, as well as by Internet use for information purposes, but not by Internet use for entertainment purposes. One could be using the Internet mostly for entertainment, disregarding the medium’s credibility. Even if one is using the Internet for information, one probably seeks validation and corroboration from more traditional sources such as newspapers. In which case, newspaper use appears to predict both one’s Internet use and perceptions of Internet credibility.
\n\n\tExtensive use the Internet does not necessarily lead to credibility.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31066" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-20T22:36:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33331, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "b80ab162-cea4-4f24-8559-16062351bd18", "siteSettingsId": 33331, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21123, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Which source matters for news on the web?", "slug": "which-source-matters-for-news-on-the-web", "uri": "medialab/research-article/which-source-matters-for-news-on-the-web", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:37-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:45:59-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33331, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/which-source-matters-for-news-on-the-web", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/which-source-matters-for-news-on-the-web", "subtitle": "An investigation of the relationship between source attribution and the perception of news credibility.", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41150": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Keunmin Bae", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41151": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Hyunjin Kang", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41154": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Bo-Youn Lee", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41156": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Shaoke Zhang", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tA recent report by the Pew Research Center (2006) illustrated the importance of the Internet as a news source. This report said that nearly one in three Americans regularly get news from the Internet, a huge leap from a decade ago when only one in fifty Americans acquired news online. Unlike traditional or offline media, there are often multiple layers of sources in the Internet, including the name of the portal site and that of the news agency for a single online news story, or multiple news cues on a single page, such as posted times and the number of viewers. Despite the rising research interest in the Internet as news media, however, it has not been thoroughly explored how multiple source layers such as names of news agencies and portal sites appearing on the interface influence readers’ perception of news. This study attempts to answer which source layer people attribute news to in the environment of multiple source layers and how the credibility of each source cue influences the credibility of news story.
\n\n\tRQ: What is the relationship between the level of involvement, the credibility of multi-layered source cues, and source attribution, AND news credibility?
\n\tCredibility is perceived as an attribute of the source, and readers’ response to the message is considered to be under influence of this attribution.
\n\tH1: The credibility of a news agency will be positively related to the credibility of the news story.
\n\tH2: The credibility of a portal site will be positively related to the credibility of the news story.
\n\tAccording to dual-process models, source credibility is considered heuristic cues and can influence attitudes toward arguments by biasing thoughts, even when people processed the message systematically. However, the models also posit that central route vs. peripheral route (or systematic processing vs. heuristic processing) activated in accordance with involvement.
\n\tH3: There will be an interaction between the level of involvement and the level of news agency credibility for the credibility of news.
\n\tH4: There will be an interaction between the level of involvement and the level of portal credibility for the credibility of news.
\n\tPrevious literature found evidence for a cue-cumulation effect in the Internet environment when source credibility is low.
\n\tH5: There will be an interaction between the level of news agency credibility and the level of portal site credibility for the credibility of news.
\n\tBased on previous literature of credibility and dual-process models, two hypotheses were formulated.
\n\tH6a: People with low involvement in the news will be more sensitive to the credibility of a portal site when evaluating news credibility
\n\tH6b: People with high involvement in the news will be more sensitive to the credibility of a news agency when evaluating news credibility.
\n\tThe hypotheses were explored via an online between-subjects experiment that manipulated two levels of involvement in the news, two levels of portal site cue credibility, and two levels of news agency cue credibility for a 2 x 2 x 2 full-factorial design. All study participants (N = 218) were randomly assigned to one of the eight stimuli conditions. Participants were asked to read a piece of news on a simulated online news page and then to answer both close-ended and open-ended questions about the perceived credibility of the news and of its sources and of their involvement level.
\n\n\tThere was no significant main effect of the manipulated IVs on perceived news credibility. However there were indirect effects of the manipulated portal and news agency credibility on news credibility. Therefore, the indirect effect of manipulated source credibility on news credibility (i.e., manipulated source credibility ? perceived source credibility ? perceived news credibility) was explored to test the hypotheses.
\n\n\tH1: Not supported. There was no significant main effect of perceived source credibility on news credibility.
\n\n\tH2: Supported. The perceived portal credibility had main effects on the perceived news credibility, F (1, 199) = 33.77, p < .001.
\n\n\tH3: Not supported. There was no interaction between the level of involvement and the level of news agency credibility for the credibility of news.
\n\n\tH4: Not supported. There was no interaction between the level of involvement and the level of portal credibility for the credibility of news.
\n\n\tH5: Supported. The interaction between portal credibility and news agency credibility on news credibility was significant. F (1, 199) = 6.08, p < .05; H5 was supported. In the low involvement condition, the perceived portal credibility had main effects on the perceived news credibility F (1, 95) = 18.78, p < .0001.
\n\n\tH6a: Partially supported. In the low involvement condition, the perceived portal credibility had main effects on the perceived news credibility F (1, 95) = 18.78, p < .0001. There were no main effects of perceived news agency credibility and no interaction between perceived portal credibility and news agency credibility.
\n\n\tH6b: Supported. In the high involvement condition, there was a significant interaction between perceived portal credibility and perceived news agency credibility on news credibility F (1, 104) = 15.28, p < .001.
\n\n\tThe result indicated that when people are highly involved in a news story, they care about the credibility of both proximal and distal sources in evaluating news credibility. Therefore, for highly-involved people, it was suggested that a source cue with low perceived credibility in multiple layers of sources cues would negatively influence the perceived news credibility, whereas low-involved people only care about the perceived credibility of the most proximate source cue.
\n\tThis study found evidence that the relative heuristic values of source cues varied according to perceived psychological distances; if a source cue of a news story appears psychologically proximate to readers, readers tend to attribute the story to the source.
\n\tIn addition, the current study supported HSM rather than ELM. The results suggested that even people who have high involvement in the news were influenced by source credibility which is commonly considered as heuristic cue, when they evaluate a news story’s credibility.
\n\tThe results suggested that portals of low or unknown credibility can gain in credibility by publishing feeds from credible news agencies.
\n\tMedia specialization has provided psychological superiority (e.g., expertise) in certain content domains at the levels of a television channel as well as the TV set. Specialization becomes more importance since it has frequently been applied to media technology (e.g., computer, web site or web agent) in an online context, in which multiple media technologies are employed as sources. Thus, this dissertation attempted to (1) explore the effects of specialization of media technology at multiple source layers (e.g., computer, web site, and web agent) on attitudes (e.g., trust) in HCI and (2) investigate the mechanisms underlying the effects of specialized media technologies at multiple source layers on trust toward different trustees (e.g., media technology and product descriptions) and different dimensions of trust (e.g., cognitive and affective trust), with a focus on the role played by the nature of information processing (i.e., heuristic vs. systematic processing). Based on cognitive psychology, social psychology, and HCI literatures, with an emphasis on their relation to trust in e-commerce, two studies were conducted with an online shopping task for purchasing wines and online questionnaires.
\n\n\tSTUDY 1
\n\n\tH1: Individuals will show greater trust toward specialist media technology compared to generalist media technology.
\n\tH2: The level of specialization of media technology at multiple source layers will be interactively associated with the individual’s trust in the media technology.
\n\tRQ1: What is the relationship between the level of specialization of media technology at multiple source layers (e.g., computer, web site, web agent) and the degree of trust in the media technology?
\n\tMETHOD
\n\tThis study employed a 2 (computer: specialist computer vs. generalist computer) x 2 (web site: specialist web site vs. generalist web site) x 2 (web agent: specialist web agent vs. generalist web agent) between-subjects experimental design. During the online shopping task, each participant was instructed to place an order after purchasing eight bottles of wine. Trust in each media technology as dependent variable was measured in the online questionnaire, which was administered immediately after the online shopping task. The online questionnaire also included institutional and dispositional trust as covariates.
\n\tResults showed that participants attributed greater expertise to the media source in the specialist conditions compared to generalist conditions. Results indicated that individuals showed greater trust toward a specialist media technology (computer, web agent) than a generalist media technology. However, there was no significant difference in trust toward web site between specialist web site and generalist web site conditions. The specialization effect of web agent appears to translate over to greater trust in the web site. Moreover, interaction effects revealed that trust in each of the three sources was enhanced under the following conditions: when the source was specialized and at least one of the other two layers were specialized, or when the source was a generalist and both the other sources were specialists.
\n\n\tFigure 1. Three-Way Interaction Effects of the Specialization of Computer, Web Site, and Web Agent on Trust toward Computer
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/KOH_D1.JPG\")
\n\tFigure 2. Three-Way Interaction Effect of the Specialization of Computer, Web Site, and Web Agent on Trust toward Web Site
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/KOH_D2.JPG\")
\n\tFigure 3. Three-Way Interaction Effect of the Specialization of Computer, Web Site, and Web Agent on Trust toward Web Agent
\n![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/KOH_D3.JPG\")
\n\tThe study conducted here extended media specialization to the context of HCI, broadened the media-equation literature in terms of mindless social responses toward specialized media technology and explored the interactive effects of media technology at multiple source layers on trust in e-commerce. However, this study did not offer an explanation regarding how specialization of media technology at multiple source layers in online communication may influence either heuristic or systematic information processing. Nor did the study explore the relationships between modes of information processing and attitude formations (e.g., trust in different trustees and different dimensions of trust). Thus, a follow-up experiment was designed to explore how specialization of media technology at multiple source layers influenced different modes of information processing depending on the level of specialization, finally leading to different associations with trust in different trustees and different dimensions of trust.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31066" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-18T21:05:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33323, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "204233cd-4dcd-4f5b-b079-482905eac3dd", "siteSettingsId": 33323, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21119, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Doctors vs. laypersons on blogs vs. bulletin boards vs. websites vs. homepages:", "slug": "doctors-vs-laypersons-on-blogs-vs-bulletin-boards-vs-websites-vs-homepa", "uri": "medialab/research-article/doctors-vs-laypersons-on-blogs-vs-bulletin-boards-vs-websites-vs-homepa", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:36-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:46:36-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33323, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/doctors-vs-laypersons-on-blogs-vs-bulletin-boards-vs-websites-vs-homepa", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/doctors-vs-laypersons-on-blogs-vs-bulletin-boards-vs-websites-vs-homepa", "subtitle": "The effects of online health sources on credibility and behavioral intentions", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41131": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Yifeng Hu", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tHu, Y., & Sundar, S. S. (2008, May). Doctors vs. Laypersons on Blogs vs. Bulletin Boards vs. Websites vs. Homepages: The Effects of Online Health Sources on Credibility and Behavioral Intentions. Paper presented at the 58th annual convention of the International Communication Association, Montreal, Canada.
\n\n\tBased on a typology of online communication sources, this research examines the influences of original sources (doctors vs. laypersons) and selecting sources (websites vs. bulletin boards vs. blogs vs. homepages) on perceived credibility of—and behavioral intentions toward—health information. A large 2 × 2 × 5 full factorial online experiment revealed that respondents (N = 555) were more likely to take action based on the information sourced from a website than from a blog or a homepage. The effect was mediated by perceived level of gatekeeping and perceived information completeness. A two-way interaction between original and selecting sources was mediated by perceived appropriateness of source placement such that information on a website was perceived as more credible if attributed to a doctor than to a layperson while information on a homepage was perceived as slightly more credible if attributed to a layperson. This interaction differed as a function of message. Practical implications for online health planners, physicians, users and policy makers are discussed.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31066" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-18T20:58:29-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33313, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "29ca1a37-3015-4a5c-a3e4-b5a8e1140ebd", "siteSettingsId": 33313, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21117, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Perceptions of online source characteristics", "slug": "perceptions-of-online-source-characteristics", "uri": "medialab/research-article/perceptions-of-online-source-characteristics", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:32-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:10:43-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33313, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/perceptions-of-online-source-characteristics", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/perceptions-of-online-source-characteristics", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41116": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Dou, X.", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41118": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Walden, J.", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41119": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Lee, S.", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "41120": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Lee, J.Y.", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tWith Web 2.0 technologies giving people new abilities to publish product reviews and other forms of content, this paper attempts to answer several questions about online sources. Drawing upon the source credibility model, attribution theory and recent conceptualizations of user-generated content, this study attempts to examine how the identity of sources for a product review posted on YouTube could influence people’s product judgments
\n\n\tPrevious source credibility studies indicate that people have different perceptions toward communicators (source) depending on who they are. In addition, high source credibility induces more message acceptance than low source credibility.
\n\tH1a: People will perceive the reviewer in the video made by a general user and an independent product review site more trustworthy than the reviewer in the video made by the company.
\n\tH1b: People will perceive the reviewer in the video made by independent product review site having more expertise than the reviewer in the video made by the company and a general user.
\n\tH1c: Trustworthiness will positively correlate with product judgments (attitude towards video, attitude towards product, and purchase intention).
\n\tH1d: Expertise will positively correlate with product judgments (attitude towards video, attitude towards product, and purchase intention).
\n\tH1e: Trustworthiness and expertise will mediate between source and product judgments (attitude towards video, attitude towards product, and purchase intention).
\n\tPrevious studies about attribution theory indicate that people make two types of attribution when they evaluate why a communicator behaves a certain way. For example, when people see a product review posted on online, people might think that the review was made because the product indeed has good value (external attribution). However, some people might think that the review was made because the reviewer has internal reasons, such as receiving incentives that has nothing to do with the performance of actual products (internal attribution). In general, when people attribute communicator’s behaviors to external motivation, they have better message acceptance and positive attitude toward the reviewed products.
\n\tH2a: Participants exposed to a product review video made by a user and an independent product review site will be more likely to attribute the reviewer’s motivation toward external (or product-related) motivation than those exposed to the review made by the company.
\n\tH2b: Participants exposed to a product review site made by a user and an independent product review site will be less likely to attribute the review toward the internal (or non-product related) motivation than those exposed to the review made by the company.
\n\n\tH2c: External attribution will positively correlate with product judgments (attitude towards video, attitude towards product, and purchase intention).
\n\n\tH2d: Internal attribution will negatively correlate with product judgments (attitude towards video, attitude towards product, and purchase intention).
\n\n\tH2e: External and internal attribution will mediate between source and product judgments (attitude towards video, attitude towards product, and purchase intention).
\n\n\tIn this study, participants (N=250) were randomly assigned to one of three conditions in which they viewed a video about Amazon’s new Kindle 2, which is a wireless device that enables users to read newspapers, books, and other print material. The video content remained the same across all three conditions. However, participants were told that the video was produced either by a regular Kindle 2 user, an independent product review website, or by the product maker (Amazon). After viewing the video, participants answered questions about how they perceive the credibility of the reviewer and the reviewer’s motivation for producing the video. In addition, participants’ attitudes toward the video, Kindle 2, and their purchase intentions were measured to evaluate product judgment.
\n\n\tOne-way ANOVAs were used to test hypotheses 1a, 1b, 2a, and 2b. Simple linear regressions were employed as the statistical analysis for hypotheses 1c, 1d, 2c and 2d. Causal steps approach was used in the evaluation of hypotheses 1e and 2e.
\n\n\tH1a: Supported. Participants perceived the reviewer in the video made by an independent product review site and a general Kindle 2 user more trustworthy than the reviewer in the video made by the product maker, F (2, 246) = 3.24, p < .05.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Figure_1__abstract-media_lab_UGC_1.jpg\")
\n\tH1b: Rejected. The source did not influence participants’ perceived expertise on the reviewer in the video.
\n\n\tH2a: Supported. Participants attributed the reviewer’s motivation of producing the video to external reasons more when they were told that the video was made by an independent product review site and a general Kindle 2 user than participants who were told that the video was made by the product maker, F (2, 246) = 5.78, p<.01.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Figure_2__abstract-media_lab_UGC.jpg\")
\n\tH2b: Rejected. The statistics failed to show any significant effects of source on internal attribution.
\n\n\tH1c: Supported. This statistical analysis reveals significant effects of trustworthiness on attitude towards video, β = .53, p<.01, attitude towards Kindle 2, β = .42, p<.01, and purchase intention, β = .01, p<.01.
\n\n\tH1d: Partially supported. Significant effects of expertise were also found on attitude towards video and attitude towards Kindle 2. However, no significant effect of expertise on purchase intention was found.
\n\n\tH2c: Supported. Statistical analysis reveals significant effects of external attribution on attitude towards video β = .52, p<.01, attitude towards Kindle 2, β = .44, p<.01, and purchase intention, β = .01, p<.01.
\n\n\tH2d: Partially supported. Significant effects were also found for internal attribution on attitude towards video, β = -.13, p<.01, and attitude towards Kindle 2, β = -.10, p<.01. However, the results did not reveal any significant effect of internal attribution on purchase intention.
\n\n\tH1e & H2e: Partially supported. When the effect of trustworthiness or external attribution on product judgments controlled, the effect of source on three variables of product judgments decreased. However, the perfect mediation was not found in other paths.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Figure_3__abstract-media_lab__UGC.jpg\")
\n\tThis study suggests that product reviews or descriptions made by regular consumers in the form of user-generated content are associated with positive product judgments. The authors argue that when a reviewer is perceived to have more credibility and when a review is apparently made for genuine purposes, then the consumer will have more positive attitudes toward the video and product.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31066" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-18T20:55:43-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33305, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "348919b3-9f32-42a0-ac2c-6d11858ba480", "siteSettingsId": 33305, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21115, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The role of modality in instructional technology", "slug": "the-role-of-modality-in-instructional-technology", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-role-of-modality-in-instructional-technology", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:31-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:10:40-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33305, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-role-of-modality-in-instructional-technology", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-role-of-modality-in-instructional-technology", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41101": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Mike Hills", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41103": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Shannon Kennan", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41105": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Mike Montalto-Rook", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis study examines the effectiveness of a text-only, audio-only, audio+outline (e.g. PowerPoint), and text+audio lesson module to determine if an optimal modality exists. A more comprehensive understanding of the role of modality has significant practical implications for better informing instructional technology designs in an online learning environment.
\n\n\tFor people, controlling for age, gender, major/discipline, and amount of time spent online in a variety of activities, what is the relationship between (IV’s) multimedia modality, power user status, multitasking ability, experience taking/teaching an online course and (DV’s) recognition, recall, and perception of modality effectiveness?
\n\n\tH1 – High level power users will perform better in recognition and recall than low level power users.
\n\n\tH2 – There will be a significant difference in the perception of modality effectiveness across low and high power users.
\n\n\tH3 – People’s multitasking ability will affect their perception of the modality condition in that high multitaskers will perceive the multimodal conditions more positively and the single modal treatment conditions more negatively.
\n\n\tH4 – People’s experience with a variety of online activities will affect their perception of the effectiveness of the modality condition in that high online activity users will perceive the multimodal conditions more positively than the single-modality conditions.
\n\n\tH5 – Participants with experience taking/teaching a course online will perform better than those with no experience.
\n\n\tThis study presented a lesson on the topic of sky farming via four modalities, administering a follow-on questionnaire to eighty-eight individuals at the University Park Campus of the Pennsylvania State University. Students followed a link that randomly assigned them to one of the four conditions (i.e. text-only, audio-only, audio+outline, text+audio). After viewing the lesson, respondents were linked to a questionnaire via Survey Monkey.
\n\n\tText+outline (i.e. PowerPoint) was shown to be the most effective modality in terms of recognition. This is interesting because it is potentially important for instructional design in an online learning environment.
\n\n\tH1 is not supported: results indicate no statistically significant difference in the performance of power users in either recognition (F(1,68)=0.0993, p=0.7536) or recall (F(1,68)=1.0553, p=0.3079).
\n\n\tH2 was supported: results show that low power users have a significantly more positive perceptions of the ease with which they were able to follow the lesson (F(1,68)=5.1828, p=0.0260).
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/instructional01.gif\")
\n\tFigure 1. Perception by Power Users, High vs Low
\n\tH3 is not supported: H3 speculated that people’s multitasking ability will affect their perception of the modality condition in that high multitaskers will perceive multimodal conditions more positively and single modal conditions more negatively. Low multitaskers, on the other hand, show an affinity for as rich a modality as is possible, with full-text plus audio the preferred modality.
\n\tH4 and H5 were both supported: results approaching significance with a p-value of 0.0743 for high versus low online users were found. Because this value was so close to significance, we conducted post-hoc testing, contrasting the text+audio condition with all other conditions which yielded statistically significant support that high online activity users do find the text+audio condition less difficult to follow (F(1,62)=5.0027, p=0.0289).
\n\n\tGiven the ever-expanding role of online education and the increased use of technology in delivering educational experiences to a broader and more diverse pool of students than ever before, understanding what is effective and what is not in delivering a positive learning outcome is vital. As more and more institutions of higher learning adopt these technologies and incorporate them into existing curriculums, a complete understanding of the role modality plays in performance and perception of learners is critical for 21st century educators and students alike.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31066" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-18T20:51:43-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33299, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "ba98dd07-3ea2-446e-a7b0-288258338982", "siteSettingsId": 33299, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21113, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Does content matter? The effects of type and number of user-generated comments on news stories", "slug": "does-content-matter-the-effects-of-type-and-number-of-user-generated-commen", "uri": "medialab/research-article/does-content-matter-the-effects-of-type-and-number-of-user-generated-commen", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:30-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:10:38-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33299, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/does-content-matter-the-effects-of-type-and-number-of-user-generated-commen", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/does-content-matter-the-effects-of-type-and-number-of-user-generated-commen", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41092": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Erin Ash", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41094": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Andrew Peeling", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tAs of 2006, approximately 80 percent of newspaper Web sites provide the opportunity for users to post comments on news stories or submit user feedback of some kind (Beyers, 2006). A previous study by one of the authors revealed that, for readers with a high online sense of community, the presence of comments on news stories led to lower ratings of story liking. This study was designed to test aspects of the modality and agency components of Sundar’s (2008) MAIN model in order to develop a theoretical explanation for that counter-intuitive finding. Specifically, this research investigates the influence of the type of comments and the number of comments on judgments of journalistic quality.
\n\tRESEARCH QUESTIONS
\n\tRQ1: For individuals, controlling for story type and participation in online forums, what is the relationship between the type and number of comments appearing on an online news story and perceived level of journalistic quality of the news site?
\n\tRQ2: How does online sense of community act as a separate predictor and/or a moderator in this relationship?
\n\n\tRQ3: How do MAIN model heuristics, namely bandwagon, expertise judgments and invasiveness mediate this relationship?
\n\n\tMETHOD
\n\tA mixed-factorial experiment was designed to answer the research questions by determining the effects of the content and amount of user-generated comments on online newspaper Websites. Two between-subjects factors, substance of the comments and number of comments, and one within-subject factor, type of story, were included in the design, creating four conditions. Participants (n = 95, age M = 20.84, SD = 1.84) were exposed to one of the four conditions by reading an online news story and the accompanying comments from a fictitious news site created for this study. Participants then completed an online questionnaire which measured perceived levels of journalistic quality and each of the heuristics regarded as a possible mediating variable.
\n\tRESULTS
\n\tResults demonstrated that individuals with a high sense of online community perceived the news stories as possessing higher quality F (1, 171) = 7.28, p < .01 and newsworthiness F (1, 171) = 11.88, p < .001, as Figure 1 and Figure 2 below illustrate. The analysis revealed a main effect for number of comments on perceived quality, with “many” condition reporting significantly higher ratings of quality (M = 6.18; SE = 1.89) than did those in the “few” condition (M = 5.70; SE = 1.79), F (1, 171) = 4.94, p < .05, as illustrated in Figure 3. This relationship was mediated by judgments of the expertise of those who commented on the stories.
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-04-18_at_1.53.19_PM.png\")
\n\tA number of comments X online sense of community interaction for objectivity ratings, F (1, 171) = 3.95, p < .05, revealed that for those with a high online sense of community, many comments led to higher objectivity ratings; whereas those with a low online sense of community perceived stories with many comments to be less objective.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/ugcnews04.png\")
\n\tFigure 4: Number of comments X sense of community on objectivity
\n\tA 3-way interaction for number of comments X type of comments X online sense of community on objectivity ratings, F (1, 171) = 3.76, p = .05, was also found. When the comments were substantive, a greater number of comments led to greater story liking for those with a high sense of community; whereas the opposite was true for those with a low sense of community, such that many comments led to lower judgments of story liking. However, when the comments were banal, few comments led to higher liking ratings for those with a high sense of community than for those with a low sense of community; and sense of community had no effect on liking for many comments.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/ugcnews05.png\")
\n\tFigure 5: Type of comments X number of comments X sense of community on liking
\n\tFinally, the type of comments had a significant effect on the heuristics expertise and invasiveness; but, with the exception of expertise and the factor quality, these heuristic judgments did not lead to differences in journalistic quality perceptions.
\n\tCONCLUSION
\n\tThe results of this experiment demonstrate that user-generated comments on online news stories do, in fact, affect judgments of journalistic quality and story liking perceptions. The research also reveals the significance of individuals’ online sense of community in the relationship between comments and journalistic quality perceptions. Further, MAIN model heuristics are also important factors in determining the effects of comments on journalistic quality, either by mediating the relationship between the two or demonstrating the influence of the type of comments on judgments. Future research should investigate why certain heuristics affect judgments of the content of the comments and others affect ratings of journalistic quality.
\n\tThis study aims to reveal the impact of a flipping modality on civic engagement as well as the underlying mechanism which drives the relationship between the technological factor and the level of civic engagement. Based on MAIN model (Sundar, 2008) and the concept of attitude accessibility (Arpan, Rhodes, & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2007), an online experiment (2 (flipping vs. non-flipping) ? 3 (old media heuristic accessibility vs. coolness heuristic accessibility vs. control)) tests the impact of flipping modality on the degree of absorption, recognition memory, attitude towards content/website, and behavioral intention of civic engagement.
\n\n\tH1: Presence of flipping modality would positively influence the quality perception of content by triggering old media heuristic and coolness heuristic.
\n\n\tH2: Presence of flipping modality would positively influence the quality perception of website by triggering old media heuristic and coolness heuristic.
\n\n\tH3: The positive effect of flipping modality on dependent variables would be greater when participants are accessible to old media heuristic than when they do not have accessibility.
\n\n\tH4: The positive effect of flipping modality on dependent variables would be greater when participants are accessible to coolness heuristic than when they do not have accessibility.
\n\n\tH5: Presence of flipping modality would positively influence the quality perception of content, which in turn, lead to positive behavioral intention towards website.
\n\n\tH6: The effect of flipping modality on quality perception of content would be positively mediated by the degree of absorption on website.
\n\n\tH7: The effect of flipping modality on quality perception of website would be positively mediated by the degree of absorption on website.
\n\n\tRQ 1: What is the effect of flipping modality on participants’ memory of media content?
\n\n\tRQ 2: What is the relationship between the presence of flipping modality and the degree of civic engagement?
\n\n\tA 2 (flipping vs. non-flipping) X 3 (old media heuristic vs. coolness heuristic vs. control) between-subjects experiment was conducted via online from April 17 to April 24. Both flipping and non-flipping eZine web pages had an identical article with several related photos. The flipping eZine enabled participants to click and drag the corners of the pages to flip through them as well as move through pages by double clicking, whereas non-flipping eZine allowed participants only to click the next page button to proceed. In particular, participants in the flipping condition were asked to turn the volume up on the computer and try to click and drag the corners of the pages to flip through them by an instruction. Figure 1 shows screen shots of flipping and non-flipping condition.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Flipping1_1.jpg\")
\n\tFigure 1. Screen shots of flipping vs. non-flipping condition.
\n\n\tParticipants in old media/coolness heuristic condition were asked to think about their previous positive experience with print media/cool media and to indicate their attitude toward those media. This procedure referred to previous research on attitude accessibility (e.g. Roskos-Ewoldsen, Bichsel, & Hoffman, 2002). Participants in the control condition were asked to think about positive experience with restaurants they like, which was hardly related to attitudes towards media.
\n\tThe news article chosen as the stimulus material was pre-tested to maintain neither too dramatic nor too boring content. The article titled “Silent Streams” from the April issue of National Geography magazine was used as stimuli.
\n\tFlipping modality was found to create positive evaluation on website and behavioral intention towards the website. Flipping through eZine led people to think the website as more sophisticated, organized, and user-friendly compared to just clicking next button to read it. The reason people responded in this way was that they reminded about the coolness of medium while they were flipping eZine, which in turn, made the interaction with eZine more absorbing and interesting experience. Similarly, flipping created more behavioral intention to forward and revisit the website by making people think about coolness and by producing positive evaluation of credibility and enjoyability of content. In terms of attitude towards content and civic engagement, however, participants who flipped through the website showed positive responses only if they reminded about coolness of medium while reading eZine. In addition, people showed less recognition memory when they flipped through eZine than when clicked through it.
\n\n\tDISCUSSION/ CONCLUSION
\n\n\tIn general, our results suggests that the way people access to medium makes a critical difference in terms of users’ perception and behavior. Flipping modality seems to create positive responses regarding the website, but a closer look at content perception and civic engagement points out the possibility of negative effects for flipping. One of the most interesting findings through this research is the positive and exclusive mediation effect of coolness heuristic on attitude towards content and civic engagement. This shows that heuristics about technology plays a significant role in deciding which effect flipping creates finally. For instance, young users like undergraduates in this research would engage to solve a civic issue presented in a new interface only when they had an opportunity to remind coolness of the medium and in turn, had positive attitude towards content. Without triggering coolness heuristic, newer interface such as flipping modality rather negatively adjust their intention to participate in civic issues. Thus, this result supports MAIN model (Sundar, 2008)’s prediction which explains heuristics triggered by technology can decide the overall evaluation of media content.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-18T20:44:13-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33283, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "3cf69414-8e2b-4457-bf2b-0d438adea32c", "siteSettingsId": 33283, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21109, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Looking at the web 2.0 world: How modality and bandwagon cues impact internet user attitudes", "slug": "looking-at-the-web-2-0-world-how-modality-and-bandwagon-cues-impact-interne", "uri": "medialab/research-article/looking-at-the-web-2-0-world-how-modality-and-bandwagon-cues-impact-interne", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:27-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:10:34-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33283, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/looking-at-the-web-2-0-world-how-modality-and-bandwagon-cues-impact-interne", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/looking-at-the-web-2-0-world-how-modality-and-bandwagon-cues-impact-interne", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41067": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Justin Walden", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41069": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Mun-Young Chung", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41070": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "George Christo-Baker", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tAs the news industry continues its digital evolution, news editors have increasingly relied upon an array of media formats to reach audience members. While a wave of industry studies have recently investigated consumer behavior and preference when it comes to online content, academic research into the area of modality goes back almost four decades. Furthermore, recent research has also considered the ‘bandwagon’ phenomenon that may shape perceptions of content in today’s digital culture. The problem is that this literature is complex and findings are occasionally contradictory. This study attempts to fill this literature gap and clarify some of the questions involved with consumer perceptions of online content. Specifically, this study points to the continued need for refined study measurements when studying modality and bandwagon related issues. This study also sheds new light on some of the factors that may influence the production of user-generated responses to professionally-produced news stories and, unexpectedly, how time spent online is strong a predictor of user production of online content.
\n\n\tRQ1: Controlling for story, what is the relationship between level of modality in a health news story and perceptions of story content?
\n\n\tRQ2: Controlling for story, what is the relationship between level of modality in a health news story and likelihood that a person will seek to engage in discussions about the story content?
\n\n\tRQ3: Controlling for story, what is the relationship between perceived bandwagon effects and perceptions of story content?
\n\n\tRQ4: Controlling for story, what is the relationship between perceived bandwagon effects and likelihood that a person will seek to engage in discussions about the story content?
\n\n\tH1A: There will be a relationship between modality and perceptions of story quality, such that the greater the number of modality presentations, the higher the perception of story quality.
\n\n\tH1B: There will be a relationship between modality and perceptions of website quality, such that the greater the number of modality presentations, the higher the perception of website quality.
\n\tH1C: There will be a relationship between modality and behavioral intentions, such that the greater the number of modality presentations the greater the person will have learned from the story.
\n\tH2A: There will be a relationship between level of bandwagon cue and perceptions of website quality such that the greater the number of Tweets, Diggs and Facebook links appearing with a story, the higher perception of story quality.
\n\n\tH2B: There will be a relationship between level of bandwagon cue and perceptions of website quality such that the greater the number of Tweets, Diggs and Facebook links appearing with a story, the higher perception of website quality.
\n\n\tH3A: There will be a relationship between modality and behavioral intentions, such that the greater the number of modality presentations, the greater the likelihood a person will seek to contribute online comments of their own about the article.
\n\n\tH3B: There will be a relationship between perceived bandwagon cue and behavioral intentions, such that the greater the number of interactive features, the greater the likelihood a person will seek to contribute online comments of their own about the article.
\n\n\tThis study was originally designed as a 4 (modality level) x 3 (bandwagon level) mixed-design factorial experiment, controlling for three story conditions. The independent variable modality was operationalized as the level of visual and audio dimension format of story that was presented to participants. Also, the bandwagon effect was operationalized as the different level of sharing of health information on the social network sites.
\n\n\tFour different types of modalities were used for the study: text only, text with picture, text with audio, and text, picture, and audio combined. For the bandwagon condition, this study used the number of sharing or contribution with public sharing or social media icons from Facebook, Twitter, and Digg. For examining story effects, this study used stories with different topics (puberty, obesity, and microbes) to help minimize the risk that modality and bandwagon-related results would be confounded by particular story-related factor such as relevance or salience. Appendix 1 shows a screen capture of sample stimulus of the microbes story in the medium bandwagon, text/picture/audio condition. A total of 231 undergraduate students voluntarily participated in the study in exchange for a small amount of extra course credit.
\n\n\tRESULTS
\n\n\tA significant relationship between modality and learning emerged, such that participants in the text with audio condition (M=3.24, SD=.35) reported that they learned more than participants who were exposed to the other three conditions (See Table 1, Figure 1).
\n\n\tThere were no significant main effects of bandwagon cues; however, this study found a significant interaction effect between bandwagon and story toward the contribution the health information, F (2, 206) = 3.69, p < .05. (See Table 3).
\n\n\tFor additional findings, the hour of blogs was a significant predictor of learning, F(1, 228) = 6.11, Adjusted R2 = .02, β = .05, p < .05. The hour of reading news sites, F(1, 228) = 7.57, Adjusted R2 = .03, β = .05, p < .01, reading blogs per week, F(1, 228) = 15.10, Adjusted R2 = .06, β = .09, p < .01, and surfing the Internet, F(1, 221) = 4.97, Adjusted R2 = .02, β = .01, p < .05, were significant predictors of the contribution to leave comments for everyone to read or to post a blog about the health information (See Table 4).
\n\n\tEven though this study could not find any significant effect toward the perception of the quality of story or website for health information, this study examined the significant modality effect toward learning from health information and the bandwagon with story interaction effect toward the contribution of the health information. These findings may be fruitful for the future research which is related to the health education and the public health campaign through media technology. Also, this study found that the hour of blogs can be a predictor of learning and contributing both, and the hour of reading news sites and internet surfing can be a predictor of the contribution to leave a comment for everyone to read or to post a blog about the health information.
\n\n\tFor some limitations of this study, it was a dilemma to build optimized stimuli webpages concerning both the experiment and the ecological validity because most health information websites contain various visual cues that make hard to simplify for the stimuli designs. Another limitation was a slight story effect. The study speculated that the story content was more relevant to the sample demographic. For the future studies, researchers may use pre-test to find the most valuable health issues for the sample, or use the between-subject design for the experiment to minimize the story effect. Also, more approaches for the user generate content about the contribution of health issues will be requested for exploring the online users’ attitude and behavior changes from health information in the interactive media environment.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31066" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-18T20:41:48-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33277, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "e648149e-4acf-464e-b865-aff74388ce93", "siteSettingsId": 33277, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21107, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Effects of facebok use on cyberactivism", "slug": "effects-of-facebok-use-on-cyberactivism", "uri": "medialab/research-article/effects-of-facebok-use-on-cyberactivism", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:26-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:10:30-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33277, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/effects-of-facebok-use-on-cyberactivism", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/effects-of-facebok-use-on-cyberactivism", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41056": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jose Aviles", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41057": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Donghee Lee", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis study examines the effect of Facebook on prompting cyberactivism when individuals receive negative feedback from their Facebook friends. Facebook is a popular form of facilitating interaction that acts as a forum for exchanging of resources and political thoughts. Past research demonstrated the primary motivation for individual's Facebook use is to interact with their network of friends. Various organizations also use Facbeook to promote and endorse social and political issues. Based on the postulation that social acceptance and the need to belong affect individual's behavior, the study observes the influence of negative feedback on individual's perception and behavioral intention to continue to support an issue.
\n\n\tFor Facebook users, controlling for gender, what is the relationship between the types of negative feedback and perceived importance of an issue / behavioral intention of the issue?
\n\tH1. Individuals who score higher on the social norms scale are likely to have a lower level of behavioral intention to endorse the social issue.
\n\tH2. Individuals who score higher on the social capital scale are likely to have a lower level of behavioral intention to endorse social issue.
\n\tH3. Individuals who score higher on the social norms scale are less likely to perceive the social issue as important.
\n\tH4. Individuals who score higher on the social capital scale are less likely to perceive the social issue as important.
\n\tParticipants (N= 218) were recruited from the Amazon Mechanical Turk. An experiment was conducted online using Qualtrics. The study randomly assigned one of six hypothetical scenarios to participants, and they were instructed to answer questions as if the scenario they read had happened to them. Participants data were divided into two data sets, representing study one and study two. Study one examines the participants who were given negative feedback via comments (N = 98). Study two examines the participants who were given negative feedback via friend loss (N = 120).
\n\n\tNo support was found for our hypotheses. However, results did indicate that gender plays a significant role in prediction of issue importance perception in both contexts of varied negative feedback. Further, a significant three-way interaction effect of gender, condition, and bridging social capital was found on behavioral intentions. F(2, 56) = 4.3854, p = .0170. Gender and bridging social capital were revealed as moderators of behavioral intentions to support an issue when the negative feedback was transmitted via comments. Interestingly, social norms predicted behavioral intentions to support an issue after negative feedback delivered through direct comments, but not after friend loss.
\n\n\tAlthough the hypotheses of this study are left with no support, the study does reveal several interesting findings. First, our findings of gender differences among Facebook users are fairly consistent with past research, suggesting that female users who receive negative feedback about their posts are likely to continue to perceive their issue as important. In addition, in the case of negative feedback through friend loss, females will continue this trend with behavioral intention as well. However, this was not the case for behavioral intentions when negative feedback was delivered through comments. In addition, the three-way interaction found indicates stark differences for men and women. For females that received our least negative comment, as bridging social capital increases, the behavioral intention to support a cause decreases. However, for males receiving our least negative comment, as bridging social capital increases, behavioral intention to support a cause increases. Suggestions for future research include examining these differences to understand the different approaches men and women utilize when receiving feedback from peers online.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31063" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-18T00:36:48-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33273, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "cf4a1778-17ee-4193-b86c-b69305af7ff1", "siteSettingsId": 33273, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21105, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Effects of online buddies and bandwagon cues on user participation in an online health community", "slug": "effects-of-online-buddies-and-bandwagon-cues-on-user-participation-in-an-on", "uri": "medialab/research-article/effects-of-online-buddies-and-bandwagon-cues-on-user-participation-in-an-on", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:25-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:10:29-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33273, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/effects-of-online-buddies-and-bandwagon-cues-on-user-participation-in-an-on", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/effects-of-online-buddies-and-bandwagon-cues-on-user-participation-in-an-on", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41049": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Kim, Hyang-Sook", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tIndividuals who join online communities generally do so to obtain information and support than to offer it to other users, thus raising concerns of under-contribution. Social impact theory (SIT) suggests that this could be due to lack of perceived social responsibility also referred to as social loafing (Latan, 1981). The core argument of SIT is that individuals are unlikely to offer someone help unless they have received a specific request for such help. This dissertation operationalizes the notion of a specific request in the form of an online buddy and investigates whether it encourages participation among users in a health community website. In addition, it investigates whether collective community feedback, in the form of bandwagon cues, persuades users to participate, as predicted by social facilitation theory (Zajonc, 1965) and the MAIN model (Sundar, 2008a).
\n\n\tH1a: When users are assigned to help another user in an online community, they will perceive greater social responsibility than when they are not assigned to a specific user.
\n\tH1b: The more social responsibility there is, the greater an individual's intention to help will be and the more he/she will actually perform helping behaviors.
\n\tH2a: When users comment on questions and their comments attract strong bandwagon ratings, they will perceive more positive evaluations from others' presence than when the comments elicit weak bandwagon cues.
\n\tH2b: The more positive evaluations from others' presence a user perceives, the greater his/her intentions to participate in the community will be.
\n\tH2c: Such effects will be stronger when users are assigned to specific recipient buddies than when they are not assigned to anyone.
\n\tH3: When users’ replies to recipient buddies’ questions receive strong bandwagon cues, users will show a greater sense of agency (H3a) and sense of community (H3b) than when the replies receive weak bandwagon cues.
\n\tH4: The higher the sense of agency (H4a) and sense of community (H4b), the greater the level of positive attitudes toward posting.
\n\tH5: The higher the sense of agency (H5a) and sense of community (H5b), the greater the intention to post.
\n\tH6: When users actually help their recipient buddies and their posting activity receives strong bandwagon cues, they will show higher levels of helpfulness to their buddies (H6a), and feel greater perceived competence in (H6b) and enjoyment (H6c) of the posting activity, than when their posting activity receives weak bandwagon cues.
\n\tH7: These psychological outcomes of posting will mediate the effect of the online buddy and bandwagon cues on posting attitudes (H7a) and intentions to contribute to the community (H7b).
\n\tH8: When a user’s posting activity receives weak bandwagon cues, the level of perceived evaluation of the activity will be greater than when it receives strong bandwagon cues.
\n\tH9: The feeling of being evaluated by others will mediate the effects of bandwagon cues on posting attitudes (H9a) and intention to post (H9b) in the online community. R1: Will users assigned to a recipient buddy be more likely to perceive pressure to help and, therefore, be less inclined to help than those who do are not assigned a recipient buddy?
\n\tThe study employed a 2 (online buddy: absence vs. presence) by 2 (bandwagon cues: weak vs. strong) between-participants factorial design experiment to test the effects of two main variables on participants' psychological outcomes, including perceived responsibility, social presence, perceived evaluation, sense of community, perceived helpfulness, and psychological reactance, as well as their posting attitudes, posting intentions, and website attitudes, across two sessions that were two to three days apart. The study constructed a prototype of an online health community website for the experiment.
\n\n\tThe major findings of the study are that 1) assigning specific online buddies to users in a community forum may lead to negative psychological and behavioral consequences; 2) the online buddy cue interacts with bandwagon cues to activate different cognitive processes, leading to differential interpretation of the meanings of those bandwagon cues either as compliments (in the presence of online buddy) or as unreliable feedback (in the absence of online buddy) and consequent psychological outcomes; and 3) in the absence of strong community feedback, the online buddy reduces users' sense of community, thus leading to negative attitudinal and behavioral reactions among participants.
\n\n\tThese findings imply that the social responsibility that users typically associate with online communities is undermined by the personal responsibility involved in helping specific individuals in those communities. Furthermore, the existence of online buddies makes users interpret community feedback in different ways. More specifically, when users have online buddies, positive community feedback signaled by strong bandwagon cues creates more pleasant psychological states than negative community feedback signaled by weak bandwagon cues. However, in the absence of online buddies, the strong bandwagon cues generate a greater level of accuracy motivation to verify the veracity of community feedback. This dissertation discusses these and other related theoretical implications as well as practical implications for online community designers.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31063" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-18T00:32:59-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33269, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "e511a8d8-d0be-4720-8c03-227334f6b710", "siteSettingsId": 33269, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21103, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Engagement with news content in online social networks", "slug": "engagement-with-news-content-in-online-social-networks", "uri": "medialab/research-article/engagement-with-news-content-in-online-social-networks", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:24-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:10:27-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33269, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/engagement-with-news-content-in-online-social-networks", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/engagement-with-news-content-in-online-social-networks", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41041": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Anne Oeldorf-Hirsch", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tIn the last decade, the newspaper industry has a seen a major decline in sales due to a number of factors, but undoubtedly in large part due to the. However, despite the increase in the number of news sources, as many as 34% of individuals younger than 25 say that they get no news on a typical day, up from 25% just ten years before. Fortunately, the Internet provides new forms of interaction that may prove essential for engaging users in the news. For instance, Facebook’s status update feature has become the key ingredient of the site’s news feed and now allows users to quickly share external content in addition to posting text updates. This access to a variety of external content may well make Facebook a primary information source for its users.
\n\n\tThis paper explores the potential benefits of both sharing news content and seeing shared news content on a social networking site, in terms of engagement in that news content. First, sharing news content on Facebook may have important empowering effects for those who post links to external content. Further, those who learn of news stories through their friends may also become more involved in the story. Discussing this content could further engage them, and seeing public discussion by friends could also have such an effect.
\n\n\tH1: Sharing a news story on Facebook through status updates will lead Messengers to feel greater involvementin the content of the news story compared to only reading the news story.
\n\n\tH2a: Receiving comments on shared content will lead Messengers to feel a greater sense of influence than not receiving comments on shared content, by way of feeling a sense of community.
\n\n\tH2b: Receiving recommendations (in the form of “likes”) on shared content will lead Messengers to feel a greater sense of influence than not receiving recommendations on shared content, by way of feeling a sense of agency.
\n\n\tH3a: Sharing a news story on Facebook with an opinion will lead to greater involvement in the content of the news story compared to posting the news story without an opinion.
\n\n\tH3b: Sharing a news story on Facebook with a question will lead to greater involvement in the content of the news story compared to posting the news story without a question.
\n\n\tH3c: Sharing a news story on Facebook with a comment or question will lead Messengers to feel a greater sense of influence than sharing the news story without a comment or question, and this will be mediated by a sense of agency.
\n\n\tH4a: Tagging friends in the post when sharing a news story on Facebook will lead Messengers to feel greater involvement in the content of the news story compared to posting the news story without tagging friends.
\n\n\tH4b: Tagging friends in the post when sharing a news story on Facebook will lead Messengers to feel a greater sense of influence than not tagging friends, by way of feeling a sense of community.
\n\n\tH5a: Commenting on a news story shared on Facebook by a Messenger will lead the Discussant to feel more informed about the news content, compared to only reading the news story.
\n\n\tH5b: Commenting on a news story shared on Facebook by a Messenger will lead the Discussant to feel more involved in the news content, compared to only reading the news story.
\n\n\tH6a: Viewing others’ comments along with the posted news story will lead the Receiver to feel more informed about the news content, compared to only reading the story.
\n\n\tH6b: Viewing others’ comments along with the posted news story will lead the Receiver to feel more involved in the news content, compared to only reading the story.
\n\n\tH6c: Viewing others’ comments along with the posted news story will make the Receiver more likely to comment on the story, compared to only reading the story.
\n\n\tH6d: Viewing others’ comments along with the posted news story will make the Receiver more likely to repost the story, compared to only reading the story.
\n\n\tH7a: Receivers will like a news story posted by Messengers on Facebook more than those reading the story on a news site.
\n\n\tH7b: Receivers will find a news story posted by Messengers on Facebook to be more representative than those reading the story on a news site.
\n\n\tH7c: Receivers will find a news story posted by Messengers on Facebook to be of higher quality than those reading the story on a news site.
\n\n\tH7d: Receivers will perceive news stories posted by Messengers on Facebook as less credible than those reading the story on a news site.
\n\n\tH8a: The higher the number of recommendations posted in response to a news story link shared by a Messenger, the greater the likelihood that Receivers will follow the link and read more of the news story.
\n\n\tH8b: The higher the number of recommendations posted in response to a news story link shared by a Messenger, the greater the Receiver’s involvement in the story.
\n\n\tRQ1: What are the effects of various levels of broadcasting (direct message, wall post, and news feed) on the predicted outcomes of sharing news stories on Facebook?
\n\n\tAn online experiment was conducted using a 3 (Broadcast Level: News Feed vs. Wall Post vs. Direct Message) x 3 (Elaboration: Opinion vs. Question vs. No Comment) x 2 (Involving Friends: Tag vs. No Tag) between-subjects experimental design. The conditions are not fully crossed because tagging is not available in all conditions, leaving 13 “Messenger” conditions. In addition, some participants were randomly assigned to one of three “Receiver” conditions: Discussant, Recommender, or Reader. The remaining participants were randomly assigned to a control condition, for a total of 17 study conditions.
\n\n\tThe sample contained 333 individuals, ranging in age from 18 to 63 years (M = 27.34, SD = 9.72), with 67% being female. Seventy-nine percent of the sample was White, 11% was Asian, 5% Black, 2% Hispanic, .6% Native American, and 1% identified as “other,” mainly South Asian. Approximately two-thirds of the participants were students (64% full-time, 4% part-time) and the non-students were employed mostly in a university setting with occupations ranging from professors to administrative staff.
\n\n\tIndividuals were randomly assigned to conditions using a script online that randomly selects one of the 17 questionnaire URLs to load. All study instructions and questionnaire items were hosted on SurveyMonkey. Messengers were given detailed instructions on how to select and post a news story, add an opinion or question, and tag friends, depending on condition. Receivers were given detailed instruction on how to find a friend’s posted story and read it, comment on it, or “like” it. Participants completed a questionnaire immediately following the task, and again one week later, about the news story, their posting activity, dependent variables of if interest, and their news reading and Facebook use habits.
\n\n\tInvolvement in the news story was not significantly higher for Messengers (vs. Control): F(1, 171) = 1.08, p = .30. However, testing the effect on Involvement at Time 2 produced a significant result, F(1, 130) = 3.96, p < .05, ω2 = .02, with those in the Messenger condition feeling significantly more involved in the story one week later (M = 3.46) than those in the control group (M = 2.92).For Messengers, Elaboration had a significant effect on Involvement, F(2, 142) = 4.50, p < .05, η2 = .02, such that those who asked a question about the news story in their post felt significantly greater involvement (M = 4.33) than those who posted their opinion about the story in their post (M = 3.55). Involving Friends did not have a significant impact on Involvement in the news story: F(1, 74) = .01, p = .91. However, Involving Friends was tested its effects on Community, and the results show a trend toward significance: F(1, 74) = 2.74, p = .10, with those who tagged their friends feeling a higher sense of community (M = 7.00) than those who did not tag their friends (M = 6.87).
\n\n\tFor Receivers, the effect of Role on Liking was significant, F(1, 46) = 7.93, p < .05, η2 = .09, with those in the Receiver condition liking the story significantly more (M = 4.11) than those in the control condition (M = 3.53). The effect of Role on Representativeness also approached significance: F(1, 46) = 3.91, p = .05, but with those in the control condition finding the news story more Representative (M = 5.19) than those in the Receiver condition (M = 4.55).
\n\n\tAccording to the Messengers’ ratings of the comments received, they were generally favorable, though somewhat superficial. To test for mediating effects of Comment Favorability between the predictors and outcome variables, a bootstrapping method for testing indirect effects of mediators developed by Preacher and Hayes (2008) was run with 5000 bootstrap samples. As shown in Figure 1, the results indicate that Posting on a Facebook wall led indirectly, through favorable comments, to feeling more informed (point estimate of -.4422, and 95% BCa CI of -.9716, -.1635), wanting to know more (point estimate of -.3744, and 95% BCa CI of -.9233, -.0372), greater interest in the topic (point estimate of -.4001, and 95% BCa CI of -.9164, -.0906), greater involvement (point estimate of -.3512, and 95% BCa CI of -.8903, -.0145), and a greater sense of influence (Empowerment; point estimate of -.1619, and 95% BCa CI of -.4131, -.0056).
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/anne_diss.jpg\")
\n\tFigure 1. Indirect effects of where a news story is posted on outcomes through comment favorability as a mediator.
\n\tThe promise of social networking sites to engage our youth in news and public affairs appears to be just that—a promise. Unlike blogs, these sites do not seem to carry the cachet of “publishing.” Study participants did not feel agentic when posting or forwarding a news story to their networks. However, their engagement in news appeared to be stimulated by support from their respective networks. It is clear from our findings that the psychological appeal of Facebook is in the social features that it offers (and continues to invent) rather than in its personal affordances. Four key elements of Facebook seem to be critical for breeding user engagement with news content—(1) Wall; (2) Likes; (3) Tags; and (4) Comments. The Wall appears to be the new “public sphere” that is quite crucial for shaping discourse about news and public affairs. The publicness of the Wall is especially critical; users do not feel the same sense of empowerment when they simply post or message others via private means. In addition to its publicness, the interface features that enable others to respond to one’s posts are particularly important. This is clearly illustrated by our mediation findings showing that others’ comments on one’s post, especially their perceived favorability and the number of Likes, have a significant impact on one’s interest and involvement in the news topic, how informed one feels, and the desire to find out more information on the news topic. Tagging friends seems to stimulate their endorsement of one’s posts, thereby creating a heightened sense of community.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31063" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-18T00:29:17-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33261, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "7c82c8d3-e63d-4df9-be5a-463513d80938", "siteSettingsId": 33261, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21101, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Employer perceptions of Facebook profiles", "slug": "employer-perceptions-of-facebook-profiles", "uri": "medialab/research-article/employer-perceptions-of-facebook-profiles", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:22-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:10:25-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33261, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/employer-perceptions-of-facebook-profiles", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/employer-perceptions-of-facebook-profiles", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41031": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Haiyan Jia", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41033": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Shannon Kennan", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41035": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Alice Shapiro", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tPaper presented to the Communication Technology Division of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC) at the annual convention in Boston, MA.
\n\n\tWhether or not Facebook’s original conception included it being used as an employment tool, it appears that it may be beginning to fill this role. Media reports and researchers have moved from concern about ethics, legal issues, and privacy to suggestions of how Facebook can be utilized by employers to recruit qualified applicants and by Facebook users to attract the attention of potential employers.
\n\n\tRQ: For a population of employers, controlling for age, gender, hours online per week, and whether or not they have their own Facebook profile, what is the effect of the amount of debauchery and self disclosure on hirability, potentially mediated by perception of conscientiousness, openness, extraversion, neuroticism, and agreeableness.
\n\tH1 – Debauchery will have a main effect on hirability.
\n\tH2 – Self disclosure will have a main effect on hirability.
\n\tH3 –Perceptions of personality factors associated with job performance (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness, and neuroticism) will mediate between debauchery and hirability.
\n\tH4 –Perceptions of personality factors associated with job performance (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness, and neuroticism) will mediate between self disclosure and hirability. (HR & personality literature)
\n\tA 2x2 factorial experiment was conducted to measure employer perceptions of Facebook profiles. Debauchery and disclosure were manipulated to measure perceptions of hirability, possibly mediated by the Five Factor personality traits (openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism). The participants were 69 employers at a large, eastern university who were randomly assigned to view a stimulus in one of four conditions (low disclosure/low debauchery, low disclosure/high debauchery, high disclosure/low debauchery, or high disclosure/high debauchery). All participants answered same questionnaire. Ownership of a Facebook page, number of hours online per week, age and gender of employer were also controlled for.
\n\n\tThe results showed a main, negative, effect of debauchery on hirability, however we found an unexpected moderating effect. Employers who had a Facebook account were significantly more sensitive to debauchery on Facebook. A borderline significant main effect of disclosure on hirability was found but another, seemingly contradictory, effect also emerged. Employers rated people who they thought disclosed highly as more hirable, but overall, profiles in the high disclosure condition were rated as less hirable, with and without debauchery. Employers stated they liked high self disclosure, but really preferred less self disclosure. Mediation effects on both self-disclosure and debauchery were found as well. The effect of the mediators were generally present and in the predicted direction, showing convergent validity with previous research. The exceptions were extroversion and neuroticism. Neuroticism did not have a significant effect on hirability. Extroversion did have a significant effect on hirability, but not in the direction that the literature predicted.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/fbemployer1.jpg\")
\n\tFigure 1: Personality model for explaining employer perception of Facebook profile affecting hiring decisions.
\n\n\tFBemployer1
\n\n\t*=P<0.05; **=P<0.01.
\n\tA: T-VALUE; B: Β-VALUE.
\n\tNONSIGNIFICANT PATHS WERE NOT SHOWN.
\n\tEmployers in our study seemed to infer personality characteristics based on the Facebook profiles that they viewed, and judge potential employees based on those characteristics. They generally preferred characteristics convergent with the previous literature on hirability, with the exception of extroversion, which was correlated with ratings related to debauchery. In general, employers inferred positive personality characteristics for the profiles with low disclosure and low debauchery. Having a Facebook account strengthened their sensitivity to the debauchery manipulation, possibly due to an increased familiarity with Facebook pages, and possibly due to an increased familiarity of the norms within the Facebook community. We interpret the seemingly contradictory result that employers preferred the low disclosure condition and yet indicated they liked high levels of disclosure to mean that employers actually preferred moderate levels of disclosure, and disclosure of certain types. The actual ratings of disclosure were mostly between 4 and 7 on a 7 point scale, so even the low disclosure condition was not considered to be very low. There was also a positive relationship between interests and work experience and openness, a personality trait positively associated with hirability. Therefore, employers in our study appear to have preferred no debauchery, and moderate disclosure of interests and work experience.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31063" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-18T00:27:06-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33253, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "80302c26-632c-4700-a6de-d077e3d96990", "siteSettingsId": 33253, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21099, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Are facebook news feeds getting you your a's? the effects of online social networking", "slug": "are-facebook-news-feeds-getting-you-your-as-the-effects-of-online-social-ne", "uri": "medialab/research-article/are-facebook-news-feeds-getting-you-your-as-the-effects-of-online-social-ne", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:21-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:10:23-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33253, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/are-facebook-news-feeds-getting-you-your-as-the-effects-of-online-social-ne", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/are-facebook-news-feeds-getting-you-your-as-the-effects-of-online-social-ne", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41017": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Adrienne Legath", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41018": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jackie Burtnett", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "41020": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Anne Sellner", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThe researchers wanted to study how Facebook affects a student's performance in school. The main part of our study included testing whether Facebook usage had a direct affect on cumulative grade point average. The researchers other main goal was to measure Facebook's distractibility and to see how that played into a student's performance.
\n\n\tRQ1: For college students, controlling for purpose of use, other online media use, time spent in offline social networks and amount of school work, what is the relationship between number of hours spent on Facebook and cumulative grade point average?
\n\n\tRQ2: Controlling for gender, is there a relationship between the amount of time spent on Facebook and cumulative grade point average?
\n\n\tRQ3: Controlling for dependency, is there a relationship between amount of time spent on Facebook and cumulative grade point average?
\n\n\tRQ4: Controlling for frustration, is there a relationship between amount of time spent on Facebook and cumulative grade point average?
\n\n\tRQ5: Is there a relationship between cumulative grade point average and the level that Facebook distracts a person from school work?
\n\n\tRQ6: Is there a relationship between amount of time spent on Facebook and the level that Facebook distracts a person from school work?
\n\n\tRQ7: Is there a relationship between cumulative grade point average and being logged onto Facebook simultaneously while doing work?
\n\n\tThe study was conducted at Penn State University. A group of students from two undergraduate courses (American Studies 100: Introduction to American Studies and Communications Arts and Sciences 202: Communication Theory) were asked to participate in an online survey. The group was chosen out of other potential sample groups because of their wide diversity in age, major, gender and year in school. The survey was sent out by email through the Penn State Course Management System, ANGEL. The survey took between 10-15 minutes to complete and no incentive was provided for participating.
\n\n\tRQ1: For college students, controlling for purpose of use, other online media use, time spent in offline social networks and school work, what is the relationship between number of hours spent on Facebook and cumulative grade point average?
\n\n\tAfter running a regression test, we found that there is no significant relationship between the number of hours spent on Facebook and the participants' reported cumulative grade point average when controlling for purpose of use, other online media use, time spent in other online social networks and school work. For ß=-0.0007 for amount of time on Facebook and ß =-0.007 for purpose total and p>.05.
\n\n\tRQ2: Controlling for gender, is there a relationship between the amount of time spent on Facebook and cumulative GPA?
\n\n\tAfter running a regression test, when controlling for gender, there was a significant relationship between the amount of time spent on Facebook and cumulative grade point average. For ? = -.0008 for amount of time on Facebook, and .08 for gender, p < .05.
\n\n\tOur findings could be due to a number of different reasons. The issue of priming may be responsible for several of the findings regarding amount of time spent on Facebook and cumulative grade point average. Priming states that a certain stimulus (the Internet) may \"prime\" the user to think of an additional semantically related concept (Facebook). After repeated exposure, this association becomes stronger. Therefore, when a participant sits down at his computer to start homework and/or check his e-mail, the usage of the Internet may prime him to immediately log into Facebook. However, this habitual routine may have no effect on his cumulative grade point average because he is merely primed to log in to Facebook when using the Internet, but does not necessarily defer his entire attention from his schoolwork.
\n\n\tFurther, Facebook is such a part of most college students lives that they may be unaffected by the act of being logged into Facebook. Question 15 asked participants if they found themselves doing homework while being logged into Facebook simultaneously. Of the 150 respondents, 66.7% reported that they do indeed do homework while being logged into Facebook simultaneously. However, being logged into Facebook does not mean that the participant is actively involving himself in the site. Facebook could simply be on the screen for quick access to other students who may be taking the same courses as him.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31063" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-18T00:15:18-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33245, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "2189bd4a-5455-4056-8df4-88ec1531f639", "siteSettingsId": 33245, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21097, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Misery doesn’t love company: An exploration of emotional bandwidth on online social networks", "slug": "misery-doesnt-love-company-an-exploration-of-emotional-bandwidth-on-online", "uri": "medialab/research-article/misery-doesnt-love-company-an-exploration-of-emotional-bandwidth-on-online", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:19-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:10:20-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33245, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/misery-doesnt-love-company-an-exploration-of-emotional-bandwidth-on-online", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/misery-doesnt-love-company-an-exploration-of-emotional-bandwidth-on-online", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "41003": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Saraswathi Bellur", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41004": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Andy High", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "41006": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Anne Oeldorf-Hirsch", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tSaras Bellur, Anne Oeldorf-Hirsch & Andrew High (2008, May). Misery doesn’t love company: An exploration of emotional bandwidth on online social networks. Paper to be presented to the Communication and Technology Division of the International Communication Association (ICA) at the 58th conference in Montreal, Canada.
\n\n\tWith the popularity and growth of online social networks such as Facebook, it becomes imperative to understand how users of these sites are employing them and whether these sites are appropriate venues to gain social support. Compared to other online social networks, such as MySpace or Friendster, Facebook allows users to post more information in a wider variety of formats: through profile pictures, personal albums, videos, and status updates.This affords users the ability to vary the amount of \"emotional bandwidth\" of their presence, thereby increasing the potential for strategic self-presentation. Because computer-mediated communication (CMC) is becoming increasingly more attractive for expressing oneself this way, these types of sites might provide a satisfactory level of social support and interpersonal connection. We argue that enhanced emotional bandwidth will trigger several mediating processes such as a heightened sense of social presence, perceived community, and group catharsis, all of which will ultimately affect the outcomes of perceived social support and liking.
\n\n\t
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/bandwidth01.jpg\")
\n\tFigure 1. Proposed model
\n\tH1a: Higher emotional bandwidth will lead to higher perceived availability of social support
\n\n\tH1b: Social presence should mediate the relationship between emotional bandwidth and social support
\n\n\tH1c: Group Catharsis should mediate the relationship between emotional bandwidth and social support
\n\n\tH2a: Higher emotional bandwidth will lead to higher perceptions of support satisfaction
\n\n\tH2b: Social presence should mediate the relationship between emotional bandwidth and support satisfaction
\n\n\tH2c: Group Catharsis should mediate the relationship between emotional bandwidth and support satisfaction
\n\n\tH3: Gender serves as a moderator in the relationship between emotional bandwidth and perceived social support such that females should report higher perceptions of social support than will men for profiles with a high emotional bandwidth.
\n\n\tH4: Gender serves as a moderator in the relationship between emotional bandwidth and liking such that females will report higher levels of liking than will men for profiles high in emotional bandwidth.
\n\n\tH5a: Higher emotional bandwidth leads to greater liking.
\n\n\tH5b: Perceived community should mediate the relationship between emotional bandwidth and liking.
\n\n\tH6a: Higher emotional bandwidth leads to greater chance of befriending.
\n\n\tH6b: Perceived community should mediate the relationship between emotional bandwidth and befriending.
\n\n\tRQ1: Does preference for online social interaction (POSI) moderate the relationship between emotional bandwidth and social support?
\n\tRQ2: Does preference for online social interaction (POSI) moderate the relationship between emotional bandwidth and liking?
\n\tUsing the Facebook site and Photoshop, three fictitious Facebook profiles were created with varying levels of emotional bandwidth by manipulating the status features on Facebook. In the profile was a young woman who had recently ended her relationship and made her negative feelings very clear on her profile. In addition, she was provided messages of support from her friends. Participants (N=84) rated one of these profiles to which they were randomly assigned on perceived network support, emotional network support, perceived support satisfaction, and liking of the profile person.
\n\n\tResults show that participants preferred Profile A, the profile with lowest bandwidth, were most likely to befriend the person in this profile, and rated it highest on perceived network support (Figure 2) and emotional network support (Figure 3), which is contrary to our hypotheses.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-04-17_at_5.17.53_PM.png\")
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-04-17_at_5.17.59_PM.png\")
\n\tSocial presence, perceived community, and befriending had significant effects on the three support variables, but did not mediate the relationship between emotional bandwidth and these dependent variables. Preference for online social interaction and perceived catharsis were significant moderators of the support variables (Figures 4-5).
\n\n\tAccording to this study, social support is most likely to be perceived and thought to be appropriate on profiles with low amounts of emotional bandwidth, suggesting that intensity of emotional bandwidth is not equal to quality and that CMC features should be used judiciously. There may also be a processing bias such that the presence of more CMC features led to less attention to support messages. In conclusion, the type of interface Facebook provides, with its loose-knit networks and asynchronous communication, may not be the proper one for the provision of social support. Similarly, people should not expect to make friends on online social networks if they selectively present themselves in a negative light.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31063" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-17T22:45:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33237, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "faf788c7-a600-4a35-916c-c64f20a16c7c", "siteSettingsId": 33237, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21095, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Putting your best face forward:", "slug": "putting-your-best-face-forward", "uri": "medialab/research-article/putting-your-best-face-forward", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:18-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:47:09-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33237, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/putting-your-best-face-forward", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/putting-your-best-face-forward", "subtitle": "Facebook and perceptions of popularity, attractiveness and self-confidence", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40984": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Christine Kleck", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "40985": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Christen Reese", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "40986": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Dawn Ziegerer", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tFacebook is an online social networking site for high school and college students and alumni of such participating universities. As relatively new technological and social phenomena, this site is gaining popularity and offers an innovative platform for research in the fields of information sciences, communication arts and sciences and social sciences.
\n\n\tThe researchers of this study attempted to apply theories surrounding uses and functions of technological modalities, social networks, recall of information and different perceptions and techniques for self presentation and appearance to Facebook.
\n\n\tImitation Facebook pages were constructed based on the life of either a male or female participant, each being of average appeal. Numbers of friends and the type of modality were manipulated for both the male and the female’s pages. A high, medium or low number of friends were combined with a text only, picture or video-based representation of the male or female student on the page. After viewing one of the conditions, participants completed a survey assessing information on things like the perceived popularity of the male or female, recall of information on the pages, and individual preferences of the page.
\n\n\tYou are perceived as being more popular, attractive, and self-confident when your social network includes a greater number of friends. Conversely, the modality you select to represent yourself on a Facebook page does not affect others’ perceptions of you. But, the modality you select to represent yourself on a Facebook page does have an affect on what people remember about you. A video representation can alter what and how much information people will recall about you.
\n\n\tThis study found that the number of friends that you have in your Facebook social network affects other people’s perceptions of you. Future research might look at the types of candid pictures posted on the user’s site and the many ways users manage impressions. An interesting study could compare how tastes in music, movies and books (as displayed on a model Facebook user’s page) impact perceptions of attractiveness, self-confidence and popularity.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31063" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-17T22:42:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33229, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "f4dbcda9-332d-41b7-bbff-5a84ed66944d", "siteSettingsId": 33229, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21093, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Cool, revealing, or annoying?", "slug": "cool-revealing-or-annoying", "uri": "medialab/research-article/cool-revealing-or-annoying", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:16-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:47:16-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33229, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/cool-revealing-or-annoying", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/cool-revealing-or-annoying", "subtitle": "An experimental investigation of facebook applications and interpersonal perceptions", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40970": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Julia Woolley", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40971": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Anthony Limperos", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40972": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Dan Tamul", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tWoolley, J., Limperos, A., Tamul, D. & S. Shyam Sundar(2008, August). Cool, Revealing, or Annoying?: An Experimental Investigation of Facebook Applications and Interpersonal Perceptions. Paper presented to the Communication Technology Division of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC) at the 91st annual convention in Chicago, IL.
\n\n\tThis research experimentally explored the relationship between (1) application level (low, medium, high), (2) gender of the Facebook profile owner (male, female), and (3) gender pairing of profile owner (male with female, female with male) on levels of interpersonal liking, homophily, and behavioral intent. To guide the current inquiry and advance hypotheses about the probable mechanisms which influence perceptions of Facebook profiles, literature involving computer-mediated communication, impression formation, and the MAIN Model of technology heuristics was reviewed. Results indicated that application level that applications elicit both distraction and coolness heuristics which then differently effect feelings of interpersonal liking. Overall, there were a variety of results and effects involving application level, heuristic cumulation, and gender on the dependant measures.
\n\n\tH1: Higher levels of applications will lead to higher levels of interpersonal liking,
\n\thomophily, and behavioral intent.
\n\tH2: Higher levels of applications will lead to lower levels of interpersonal liking, homophily, and behavioral intent.
\n\tH3: Individuals who perceive the model profile as having applications similar to their own will have higher levels of interpersonal liking, homophily, and behavioral intent.
\n\tRQ1: What is the relationship between application level, model gender, participant gender, and model pairing and interpersonal liking, homophily, and behavioral intent.
\n\tAll participants (N = 227) were randomly assigned into one condition of a 16 cell fully-crossed between-subjects 2 (Model Gender; male, female) X 2 (Pairing; paired, alone) X 4 (application level; none, low, medium, high) factorial design. Before viewing the model profile, participants were told that they were participating in a study to aid in the development of a Facebook application which would help connect students in large lecture classes. After providing their Facebook email address and the course for which they were receiving credit (information which was immediately discarded), they were “matched” with the model profile. The model profile randomly varied in terms of model gender and whether or not the profile picture contained one or two individuals. The number of applications on the page also randomly varied between none, low, medium, and high. The primary dependent variables, interpersonal liking, attitude homophily, and behavioral intent, as well as profile coolness, distraction, and expectations of liking were then measured by an online questionnaire after participants had viewed the model profile.
\n\n\tApplication level had no main effect on interpersonal liking, but a main effect for model gender was obtained with females being liked more than males. A significant relationship was found between application homophily and interpersonal liking mediated by coolness. A similar relationship was found between expectations and interpersonal liking mediated by coolness. There was a significant main effect of application level on distraction with high and medium levels of applications leading to significantly higher distraction than low levels of applications. The distraction heuristic then has an indirect effect on liking, with application level leading to greater suspicion which partially mediates the relationship between application level and distraction, and then with distraction mediating the relationship between suspicion and systematic processing and systematic processing leading to greater liking. There was also a significant Application Level X Gender X Gender Pairing interaction on distraction with higher application levels leading to higher levels of distraction for doubled models, particularly when evaluated by male participants (See Figure 4). This interaction may be interpreted in light of the fact that in evaluating relational openness, pairing approached significance in its effect on openness, with single models being viewed as more open than paired models. Distraction and coolness heuristics show a cue-cumulation effect in their effect on interpersonal liking where distraction and coolness have an additive or “cue-cumulation” effect on interpersonal liking
\n\n\tBased on the findings of our study, it appears that enriching a Facebook profile with applications may actually trigger effects that are not always beneficial for impression formation in CMC contexts, contrary to social information professing theory. These results also suggest that the MAIN model heuristics approach to studying communication technology does have utility. Further investigation is needed to investigate the specific antecedents to the cueing of particular heuristics. Our results do show, however, that these heuristics do play a role in how people perceive others. Also, this finding supports the basic assumptions of the social information processing theory as users were still able to perceive similarity and tended to like the target profile because of perceived similarity even in absence of all the cues which would normally be available in FTF interaction. While the number of applications did yield some differences on our dependent measures, differences based on type of applications could not be discerned. Different types of applications may serve different social and personal functions, such as broadcasting, interactive or single-person gaming, gift-giving, and identity expression, to name just a few. These differences may play a role in interpersonal evaluations. Also, given the fact that application level did not directly influence evaluations of profile “coolness”, exploratory research which attempts to ascertain what aspects of Facebook profiles (or individual differences in evaluations of profiles) might lead to differing evaluations of coolness would be beneficial.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31063" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-17T22:38:23-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33221, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "95931056-8b0f-4cfb-800e-7a3f7d8de52e", "siteSettingsId": 33221, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21091, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Facebook: The final frontier", "slug": "facebook-the-final-frontier", "uri": "medialab/research-article/facebook-the-final-frontier", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:15-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:10:11-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33221, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/facebook-the-final-frontier", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/facebook-the-final-frontier", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40955": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Travis Ratica", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40956": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Matt Blue", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40959": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jared Besecker", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis study explores the recent explosion of usage of social networking sites (SNS), more specifically the usage of Facebook. We will examine the usage of Facebook and see how it relates to GPA as well as how it relates to age and involvement in extra-curricular activities.
\n\n\tRQ1- What is the relationship between Facebook usage and GPA?
\n\tRQ2- What is the relationship between age and Facebook and Twitter usage?
\n\tRQ3- What is the relationship between class enjoyment and amount of time spent on Facebook?
\n\tRQ4- What is the relationship between amount of time spent on Facebook and extra-curricular activities as they relate to GPA?
\n\tWe created a 40-question survey on Surveymonkey.com and distributed it to several undergraduate communications classes and also sent the link through Facebook and ANGEL course management system. We had 152 participants, 99 females and 53 males, participate in this study. Questions were either open ended and allowed respondents to enter their own responses, or were measured on a 5-point likert scale.
\n\n\tRQ1- We found that participants who used Facebook less than 90 min per week have a lower GPA while people who use Facebook more than 90 min per week have a higher GPA.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-04-17_at_3.38.06_PM_1.png\")
\n\tRQ2- We found that people over 25 tend to use twitter more often and younger people (under 25) use Facebook more.
\n\n\tRQ3- We found that the more people use Facebook the more they enjoy class.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-04-17_at_3.40.57_PM.png\")
\n\tRQ4- We found that the more time spent on Facebook the more involved in extra-curricular the person was. Also we found that the more extra-curricular activities the person was involved in the higher the persons GPA leading us to believe that extra curricular activities is a mediating variable between time spent on Facebook and GPA.
\n\n\tThe results we found from our study were very surprising in the aspect that people spending over 90 min a week on Facebook had a higher GPA. We originally thought that the opposite would happen, that people who spend more time would have a lower GPA but that was not the case. We did find the expected results for age in respect the SNS sites. Older people use twitter more and younger people use Facebook more. We attribute this to older people wanting to stay connected with people but not being able to spend a large amount of time facilitating these connections so they use twitter because it is fast and convenient and does not require a large amount of time. The results for RQ3 showed that people who use Facebook more enjoy class more and we attribute this to the social connections made on Facebook. Since students are able to interact with classmates on Facebook, they are able to meet their classmates on a personal level and get to know them so they feel more comfortable in class because they feel they have friends in the class with them. In terms of RQ4 we found very interesting results in that extra-curricular activity was a mediating variable between time spent on Facebook and GPA. We found a relationship between Facebook time and GPA and also a relationship between extra curricular activity and GPA but when we ran our test with both variables the relationship between Facebook time and GPA ceased to be significant and extra curricular activities became significant showing that it was in fact a mediating variable. Our results showed very interesting findings; however future research will be needed to confirm our findings.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31063" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-17T22:35:45-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33213, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "1807b9b0-48d9-480f-bcaa-ab0ab209046c", "siteSettingsId": 33213, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21089, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "To friend or not to friend? How facebook can help me make my friend request decisions more efficient", "slug": "to-friend-or-not-to-friend-how-facebook-can-help-me-make-my-friend-request", "uri": "medialab/research-article/to-friend-or-not-to-friend-how-facebook-can-help-me-make-my-friend-request", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:13-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:10:09-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33213, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/to-friend-or-not-to-friend-how-facebook-can-help-me-make-my-friend-request", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/to-friend-or-not-to-friend-how-facebook-can-help-me-make-my-friend-request", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40942": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Carolyn Hafernik", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40944": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Guan-Soon Khoo", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40946": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Haiyan Jia", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tCan Facebook assist users in making friend request decisions more efficiently? Our study explores how Facebook users negotiate friend requests based on psychological cues. A 3x2x2 mixed design experiment (N=246) was conducted at a large east coast university campus. We hypothesized correlations between types of friend request information (i.e. number of friends, number of mutual friends and presence of mutual interest) and acceptance likelihood, with popularity and attractiveness, common ground, compatibility, and curiosity as mediators. Our findings indicate that number of friends and number of mutual friends are significant factors for acceptance likelihood, and that curiosity is a mediator for the relationship between number of mutual friends and acceptance likelihood. The theoretical and practical implications of these relationships are discussed and recommendations for future research & Facebook design are offered.
\n\n\tRQ: For Facebook users, controlling for gender, age, internet usage, Facebook usage, actual number of friends, what is the relationship between Facebook friend request cues and the acceptance of the friend request?
\n\n\tH1: The greater the number of Facebook friends (NOF), the greater the likelihood of acceptance.
\n\n\tH2: Having mutual friends (NOMF) leads to a greater likelihood of acceptance.
\n\n\tH3: Having mutual interests (MI) leads to a greater likelihood of acceptance.
\n\n\tH4: The greater the number of Facebook friends (NOF), mediated by perceived attractiveness and popularity, the greater the likelihood of acceptance.
\n\n\tH5: Having mutual friends (NOMF), mediated by common ground, compatibility, curiosity, leads to a greater likelihood of acceptance.
\n\n\tH6: Having mutual interests (MI), mediated by common ground, compatibility, curiosity, leads to a greater likelihood of acceptance.
\n\n\tA 3 (number of friends) × 2 (number of mutual friends) × 2 (mutual interest) mixed-design experiment (n=246) was conducted online to test the hypotheses. The number of friends and the number of mutual friends are between-subject variables, whereas the information of mutual interest is a within-subject variable. After giving their implied consent participants viewed a friend request stimulus and filled in a questionnaire, then they looked at a second stimulus and filled in the same questionnaire again before providing some brief demographic information. The independent variables were number of friends, number of mutual friends, and mutual interests. The dependent variable was acceptance likelihood. Attractiveness, popularity, common ground, compatibility and curiosity were proposed mediators. Factor analysis revealed that attractiveness and popularity could be combined as could common ground and compatibility.
\n\n\tIn sum, our results support Hypotheses 1 and 2, showing that number of friends and number of mutual friends are significant factors for acceptance likelihood (Figures 1-2).
\n\n\t
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-04-17_at_3.38.06_PM.png\")
\n\tHypothesis 3 -that mutual interest will have a significant effect on acceptance likelihood - is not supported by the data. Hypothesis 4 is not supported by the data; while number of friends has a significant effect on popularity, popularity does not have a significant effect on acceptance likelihood. Thus popularity could not be a mediator for the relationship between number of friends and acceptance likelihood. Hypothesis 5 is partially supported as curiosity is found to be a mediator between number of mutual friends and acceptance likelihood. However, our data does not support common ground as a mediator for mutual friends. Hypothesis 6 is not supported, as common ground and curiosity are not mediators for the relationship between mutual interests and likelihood of acceptance.
\n\tSeveral theoretical explanations and practical issues were discussed: a ceiling effect of number of friends, heuristic versus systematic processing of Facebook friend request cues, why mutual interest did not predict acceptance likelihood, and the “social’ venue of Facebook and how this affects the usefulness of cues. In addition, design suggestions for future Facebook friend requests are presented, as are limitations of the current study and ideas for future work.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31063" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-17T22:33:06-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33207, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "ac013e2d-011d-4c18-b7a2-3115f3afc3fe", "siteSettingsId": 33207, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21087, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Deliberative quality of comments on social news websites: A content analysis", "slug": "deliberative-quality-of-comments-on-social-news-websites-a-content-analysis", "uri": "medialab/research-article/deliberative-quality-of-comments-on-social-news-websites-a-content-analysis", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:12-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:10:07-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33207, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/deliberative-quality-of-comments-on-social-news-websites-a-content-analysis", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/deliberative-quality-of-comments-on-social-news-websites-a-content-analysis", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40932": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Ye Tian", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40933": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Yuqi Zhao", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis paper aims to employ quantitative metrics of public deliberation theory and evaluate the deliberative merit of discussions on social news websites. A content analysis was conducted to evaluate the deliberative quality from seven aspects, and discussions are sampled from two topics and from two types of websites with different specialty. A 2 by 2 factorial ANOVA shows that the overall deliberation quality differs significantly between the two topics and between the two types of websites. Regression analysis suggests a strong correlation between the degree of participation and other metrics of deliberative quality.
\n\n\tRQ1:For discussion threads on social news websites, what is the relationship between topic of story, specialty of website and deliberative quality?
\n\tRQ2:For discussion threads on social news websites, controlling for topic of story and specialty of website, what is the relationship (1) between participation and the usage of respectful language, (2) between participation and the quality of argumentation, and (3) between participation and degree of interaction?
\n\tIn this study, we randomly selected discussion threads from both technology and public affairs topics across both general social news websites and specialized social news websites. Both authors were involved in the coding process (high inter-coder reliability). For each thread of comments, we calculated quantitative data to evaluate deliberative quality from the following aspects: claim-making, sourcing, interaction, respect and participation. The first set of analyses uses a 2× 2 factorial design (topic of story: technology and public affairs × specialty of website: general and specialized) to examine their effects on the deliberative quality of comments. This set of analyses employ factorial ANOVA to evaluate all the dependent variables on topic of news story, specialty of websites, and the interaction between the two. The second set of analyses examines the relation between degree of participation and other metrics of deliberative quality. With the two categorical variables (topic of news story and specialty of website) as control variables, each metric is regressed on the participation variable (average number of posts per user in a thread).
\n\n\tThe complete results of the first set of analyses are shown in Table 2. The degree of participation on general websites is significantly different from that on specialized websites. Significant difference exists between the average length of message on general websites and that on special websites, and between technology topic and public affairs topic. In terms of the percentage of claim-making posts and posts providing sources to support claims, specialized websites show a consistently higher quality than general websites. The topic of public affairs has a significantly higher percentage of claim-making posts than technology. For the percentage of posts showing agreement, significant difference exists between the topic of technology and public affairs. However, for all of the three metrics (percentage of posts showing agreement, disagreement, or using impolite languages), the interactions between them are significant. Specifically, for the topic of technology, specialized websites have significantly higher percentage of posts showing agreement and disagreement than general websites, and also have significantly higher percentage of posts that use impolite language. For the topic of public affairs, however, all of the three metrics show an opposite pattern between specialized websites and general websites. Table 3 shows the detailed results of the second set of analyses. Among the four metrics, percentage of claim-making posts is significantly negatively related to the average number of posts made by a user, while percentage of posts showing agreement, disagreement and using impolite language are significantly positively related to the average number of posts per user.
\n\n\tOverall, significant differences exist between general and specialized website users on specialized websites exhibit a more deliberative behavior. The reason varies on the case-to-case basis. For the topic of technology, due to the average high professional profile of Hacker News users, lay people tend to be reluctant to post links or comments. Also, based on the data analysis in Moore’s study (Moore, 2012), we would argue that their prudence of voicing their opinions is the reason for their higher-quality conversation: Hacker News users do not comment a lot, but when they do, they give insightful thoughts. For the topic of public affairs, the strict moderating mechanism on specialized websites is the main cause for the high quality of comments. However, the rigorous moderating system also lowers the degree of interaction in discussions on the specialized public affairs websites. Topic of news article is also a predictor of the deliberative quality of discussion in some way. Notably, discussions on the topic of public affairs have a higher quality of claim-making and sourcing than those in technology. We found that many posts under the technology topic were questions and answers, which provide details and explanations of the technology involved in the news story rather than giving the commenters’ judgments on them; therefore these posts were not counted as claim-making posts in our analysis. Controlling for topic and website specialty, the second set of analyses showed a significant correlation between the degree of participation and other metrics. The results confirm our intuitive understanding that when less people are involved and each user makes more posts, the degree of interaction is significantly improved; simultaneously, the impolite language is also more frequently used. Contrary to the widely accepted perception that more interaction (turn-taking) facilitates better communication, our results indicate that interaction is negatively related to the percentage of claim-making posts.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31063" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-17T20:12:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33199, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "5b467e61-64ef-4253-8263-f2db216e84b0", "siteSettingsId": 33199, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21085, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Advice at home and at work", "slug": "advice-at-home-and-at-work", "uri": "medialab/research-article/advice-at-home-and-at-work", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:11-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:48:14-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33199, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/advice-at-home-and-at-work", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/advice-at-home-and-at-work", "subtitle": "How advisor features and problem context affect advice outcomes", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40920": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Loren Bailey", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40921": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Kellie St.Cyr Brisini", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40922": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Kaytiann Severen", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tAdvice is an important and ubiquitous form of social support and social influence at work and at home. However, very little research to date has examined advice giving at the intersection of these two important aspects of adult life. Advice response theory holds that the message features influence advice outcomes positively, as do individual characteristics of the advisor, such expertise, trustworthiness and closeness to the recipient. Additionally, the theory suggests that the influence of message features and advisor characteristics are moderated by situational factors (Feng and MacGeorge 2010; MacGeorge, Guntzviller, Hanasano, and Feng, 2014). The current study was designed to examine the relationship between the advisor characteristics and the situational factors by comparing perceptions of advice in response to problems in the context of family and work.
\n\n\tFor married, employed adults, controlling for age and scenario realism, what is the relationship between problem context (RQ1), advice source (RQ2), explicit expertise claims (RQ3) and advice outcomes?
\n\n\tFollowing previous advice research, this study uses hypothetical response scenarios to test a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial design. First, married, working adults (n = 370) read one of two scenarios in which they experienced a problem either at home or at work. These work and family scenarios contained parallel problems, in which the scenarios used the exact same wording, with just the key nouns changed to match the work or family context (e.g. “Two of your co-workers are fighting,” versus “Two of your family members are fighting”). The scenarios were pilot tested to ensure high levels of realism, high problem severity, and gender neutrality. Next, they received a piece of advice, which they were asked to imagine was given by either their spouse or a close co-worker. The advice messages were the same across all scenarios and were formatted using previous advice research to uniformly demonstrate qualities of efficacy, feasibility, and absence of limitations. Half of the advice contained an expertise claim in which the advisor expressed having experience with that particular problem. After reading the scenarios and advice claims, the participants evaluated the advice for quality (e.g. helpfulness, supportiveness, appropriateness) and responded to measures concerning their intention to implement the advice, the sufficiency of the support received, and the coping assistance gained.
\n\n\tAdvice received from a spouse was evaluated more positively across the work and family problem contexts. In particular, the advice was seen as more supportive and better quality. Advice recipients were also more likely to implement advice from a spouse than advice from a co-worker. Although there were no main effects for expertise claims or the problem context, expertise claims given in the work context improved evaluations of advice quality. This effect did not hold for problems in the family context. Additionally, for work problems, advice from a spouse was seen as more supportive when it contained an explicit statement of experience with the problem.
\n\n\tAdvice response theory alludes to the importance of advisor relationship and problem type, but has yet to test this empirically. This study is the first step to including relationship type and problem type in advice response theory. Overall, these findings [suggest] that romantic partners, through advice, have a strong influence over people’s reactions to problems; moreover, that the context of the problem may shape how message features, such as expertise claims, influence how successfully advice is received.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31063" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-17T18:53:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33191, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "5350c1c0-9157-4360-adaf-d40f30ad44fe", "siteSettingsId": 33191, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21083, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Does familiarity breed enjoyment?", "slug": "does-familiarity-breed-enjoyment", "uri": "medialab/research-article/does-familiarity-breed-enjoyment", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:09-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:48:12-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33191, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/does-familiarity-breed-enjoyment", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/does-familiarity-breed-enjoyment", "subtitle": "The role of contextual and language familiarity in media enjoyment", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40906": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Arienne Ferchaud", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "40907": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Tsai-Wei Chen", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "40908": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Neelam Dwivedi", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis research examines the influence of contextual and language familiarity on viewer's experience of enjoyment and narrative realism in science fiction movies. Our research was guided by the theoretical model of narrative comprehension and engagement proposed by Busselle and Bilandzic (2008) (See Figure 1). The phenomenon of fictional language use in sci-fi movies was studied in an experiment where 147 participants were shown a fictional movie clip with an alien character speaking one of three languages with varying levels of familiarity. While contextual familiarity through prior viewing was found to significantly influence enjoyment and narrative realism, the effect of language familiarity was not significant.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Ferchaud01.jpg\")
\n\tFigure 1: Adaptation of Busselle & Bilandzic (2008) model of narrative comprehension and engagement
\n\n\tRQ1: For the general population, controlling for age, gender, and ethnicity, what is the relationship between viewer's contextual familiarity with the narrative and viewer's enjoyment?
\n\tRQ2: For the general population, controlling for age, gender, and ethnicity, what is the relationship between viewer's language familiarity and viewer's enjoyment?
\n\tRQ3: For the general population, controlling for age, gender, and ethnicity, what is relationship between viewer's contextual familiarity with the narrative and viewer's perceived narrative realism?
\n\tRQ4: For the general population, controlling for age, gender, and ethnicity, what is the relationship between viewer's language familiarity and viewer's perceived narrative realism?
\n\tH1a: The relationship between contextual familiarity and enjoyment will be mediated by viewer's flow experience. .
\n\tH1b: The relationship between contextual familiarity and perceived narrative realism will be mediated by viewer's flow experience..
\n\tH1c: The relationship between language familiarity and enjoyment will be mediated by viewer's flow experience.
\n\tH1d: The relationship between language familiarity and perceived narrative realism will be mediated by viewer's flow experience
\n\tH2a: The relationship between contextual familiarity and enjoyment will be mediated by the viewer's experience of transportation.
\n\tH2b: The relationship between contextual familiarity and perceived narrative realism will be mediated by the viewer's experience of transportation.
\n\tH2c: The relationship between language familiarity and enjoyment will be mediated by the viewer's experience of transportation.
\n\tH2d: The relationship between language familiarity and perceived narrative realism will be mediated by the viewer's experience of transportation.
\n\tH3a: The relationship between contextual familiarity and enjoyment will be mediated by viewer's experience of identification.
\n\tH3b: The relationship between contextual familiarity and perceived narrative realism will be mediated by viewer's experience of identification.
\n\tH3c: The relationship between language familiarity and enjoyment will be mediated by viewer's experience of identification.
\n\tH3d: The relationship between language familiarity and perceived narrative realism will be mediated by viewer's experience of identification.
\n\tTo test our hypotheses, we utilized a 2 x 3 between-subjects factorial design. Contextual familiarity was operationalized as whether or not participants had seen the film prior to watching the clip, while language familiarity was operationalized as the language of the clip being English, Hungarian, or Divine. Participants were recruited from Amazon Mechanical Turk (N=147). All participants resided in the United States in order to minimize possible cultural differences. Each participant was required to watch the video clip in its entirety and then was asked to answer a questionnaire designed to assess prior viewing, language familiarity, identification, transportation, flow, and enjoyment, as well as demographic information.
\n\n\tThe results show that higher degree of contextual familiarity is related to higher degree of enjoyment—a relationship that is mediated by the degree of identification, flow, and enjoyment. (See Figure 2 & 3) However, this study did not find a statistically significant relationship between language familiarity and enjoyment. Neither did the study find any significant effect of language familiarity on narrative realism. Finally, analysis showed that prior viewing has a significant impact on narrative realism and identification mediates the relationship between the two.
\n\t
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Ferchaud02.jpg\")
\n\tFigure 2: Parallel mediation model for the relationship between prior viewing and enjoyment
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Ferchaud03.jpg\")
\n\tFigure 3: Parallel mediation model for the relationship between prior viewing and narrative realism
\n\n\tThis study examined the relationship between the effect of contextual familiarity and language familiarity on enjoyment and perceived realism. Our findings contribute to current research in three important ways. First, our research provides empirical evidence and points toward potential amendment for the model proposed by Busselle and Bilandzic (2008). Second, while we expected that English, Hungarian, and the fictional Divine language could form a continuum of language familiarity, the manipulation check revealed that the non-English conditions were not distinct from each other, thus making the benefit of using fictional language in sci-fi movies open to question. Finally, the study provides practical implications to those seeking profits in audience enjoyment.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31075" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-17T18:50:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33185, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "d3162a1a-e9e4-496f-bc7c-901bfbfff76a", "siteSettingsId": 33185, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21081, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Meaningfully moved, but emotionally mixed", "slug": "meaningfully-moved-but-emotionally-mixed", "uri": "medialab/research-article/meaningfully-moved-but-emotionally-mixed", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:08-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:48:10-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33185, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/meaningfully-moved-but-emotionally-mixed", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/meaningfully-moved-but-emotionally-mixed", "subtitle": "The dual effects of elevation on viewers' enjoyment of media violence", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40896": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "T. Franklin Waddell", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40897": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Stefanie E. Davis", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tAlthough non-hedonic motivations for media use have begun to receive more attention, less research has considered how exposure to meaningful media affects viewers’ enjoyment of other media content. Specifically, past research has yet to consider if viewers’ enjoyment of hedonic media is affected by feelings of elevation elicited by exposure to eudaimonic media. If the experience of elevation decreases viewers’ enjoyment of media violence, inducing elevation may be a possible intervention technique by which reinforcing spirals between viewers’ preferences for violent media content and subsequent aggressive behavior can be reduced.
\n\n\tGiven the lack of previous research on how feelings of elevation affect viewers’ media preferences, the following research questions were proposed:
\n\tRQ1: For young adults, controlling for prior film exposure, what is the relationship between level of elevation and the degree of enjoyment elicited by exposure to media violence?
\n\tRQ2: For young adults, controlling for prior film exposure, what is the relationship between level of elevation and the degree of transportation elicited by exposure to media violence?
\n\tTo examine the relationship between level of elevation and viewers’ enjoyment of media violence, a two-condition between-subjects experiment was conducted. Participants were randomly assigned to view either a meaningful or non-meaningful film clip. After exposure, they rated their perceived degree of elevation and mixed affect on a post-exposure questionnaire. Then, all participants watched a violent media clip and evaluated their degree of enjoyment and transportation. Both clips were viewed in a dark room at a viewing distance of four feet on a 42in plasma screen television.
\n\n\tRQ1 (Enjoyment): No main effect of viewing condition on enjoyment was found, F (1,53) = .27, p = .605. However, a significant two-way interaction between viewing condition and prior exposure to the violent film clip was found, F (1, 53), = 8.66, p < .001. As shown in figure 1, participants in the treatment group with prior exposure to the violent film scored significantly higher in enjoyment (M = 4.82, SE = .377) than participants in the control group with prior exposure to the violent film(M = 3.71, SE = .352). By comparison, first time viewers of the violent film in the treatment group scored significantly lower on enjoyment (M = 2.54, SE = .234) than first time viewers of the violent film in the control group (M = 3.32, SE = .307).
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/WaddellFigure1.jpg\")
\n\tRQ2 (Transportation): No significant effect of viewing condition on transportation was found, F (1, 53) = .000, p = .993. However, a significant two-way interaction between transportation and prior exposure to the eudaimonic filmon enjoyment was found, F (1, 53) = 11.84, p < .009. As shown in figure 2, participants in the treatment group with prior exposure to the eudaimonic film clipscored lower on transportation (M = 3.20, SE = .411) than participants in the control group with prior exposure the eudaimonic film (M = 4.22, SE = .403). Alternatively, first time viewers of the eudaimonic film in the treatment group scored higher on transportation (M = 4.5, SE = .30) than first time viewers in the control group (M = 3.49, SE = .351).
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/WaddellFigure2.jpg\")
\n\tPath Analysis: Hayes’ PROCESS macro for SPSS with 5000 bootstrapped samples was used to test whether an indirect path from eudaimonic viewing to enjoyment existed through elevation, mixed affect, or transportation. Two significant indirect paths from viewing condition to enjoyment were found. As shown in figure 3, a negative indirect path from eudaimonic viewing to enjoyment through elevation was statistically significant (b1 = -.783, SE = 334, LLCI = -1.52, ULCI = -.174). In addition, a positive indirect path from eudaimonic viewing to enjoyment through elevation, mixed affect, and transportation was also found that was statistically significant (b4 = .267, SE = .149, LLCI = .056, ULCI = .687).
\n\n\tThe results of the present study found that elevation has a dual effect on viewers’ enjoyment of media violence. Specifically, two indirect paths from meaningful media exposure to enjoyment were found, as elevation was negatively correlated with enjoyment whereas mixed affect and transportation were positively correlated with enjoyment. Furthermore, participants’ prior exposure to the violent film clip used in current study moderated the effect of meaningful media exposure on enjoyment. For first time viewers of the violent film, viewing the meaningful film decreased their enjoyment of media violence. However, for repeat viewers of the violent film, exposure to the meaningful film clip increased their subsequent enjoyment. In other words, the effect of elevation on viewers’ enjoyment of media violence varied based on their prior viewing of the violent film in question. Based on the results of the current study, it appears that inducing feelings of elevation is limited as a means of altering viewers’ pre-existing media preferences.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31075" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-17T18:47:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33178, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "ba89c70e-13e7-4f42-8eb1-36a8bba6a84c", "siteSettingsId": 33178, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21079, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The therapeutic effects of cinema", "slug": "the-therapeutic-effects-of-cinema", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-therapeutic-effects-of-cinema", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:07-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:48:08-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33178, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-therapeutic-effects-of-cinema", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-therapeutic-effects-of-cinema", "subtitle": "An experimental study of catharsis through narrative media and contemplation", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23149" ], "studentResearchers": { "40893": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Khoo, Guan-Soon", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tCatharsis has been dismissed by behaviorists and media psychologists since the 1970s because the dominant venting model has failed to produce empirical support for this construct (Bushman, Baumeister, & Stack, 1999; Geen & Quanty, 1977; Zillmann, 1998). However, the notion of catharsis persists in the Humanities (Belfiore, 1992) and everyday usage. Using a broadened conceptualization, based on the clarification view (Halliwell, 1986; Nussbaum, 1986; Oatley, 2011), this research proposed a new catharsis theory and tested its hypotheses using narrative media and a 20-minute self-reflection task.
\n\n\tH1a: Exposure to human drama and expressive writing on the drama positively predicts health and psychological well-being compared to non-expressive writing on a non-emotional topic.
\n\tH1b: Imagining a traumatic event and writing expressively on the trauma positively predicts health and psychological well-being compared to non- expressive writing on a non-emotional topic.
\n\tH2: Exposure to human drama coupled with expressive writing leads to greater identification compared to imagining a traumatic event and writing expressively about it.
\n\tH3: Greater identification leads to greater self-efficacy in negative affect regulation.
\n\tH4a: Self-efficacy in negative affect regulation positively predicts physical health.
\n\tH4b: Self-efficacy in negative affect regulation positively predicts psychological well-being.
\n\tH5: Exposure to human drama leads to greater meaningful affective states when the individual writes expressively about the human drama compared to no expressive writing.
\n\tH6: Greater meaningful affect leads to greater self-compassion.
\n\tH7a: Self-compassion positively predicts physical health.
\n\tH7b: Self-compassion positively predicts psychological well-being.
\n\tH9: Identification and transportation will mediate the relationships between narrativity and congruency between media characteristics and characteristics of the self-narrative and self-concept.
\n\tRQ1: What will be more strongly associated with congruency between media characteristics and characteristics of the self-narrative and self-concept: transportation or identification?
\n\tA 4-condition controlled experiment was designed to examine and explore catharsis through mediated human drama in two modes: cinematic and text-based.
\n\n\tResults showed that the direct effects of catharsis through media exposure and subsequent introspection were weak. Nonetheless, indirect cathartic effects through cinematic human drama were found in the form of improved general health and psychological well-being. These therapeutic effects were mediated by identification with fictional characters, improvements in self-efficacy in regulating sadness, increases in self-compassion, and the use of particular word categories during contemplation. For the latter, the use of greater insight and discrepancy words indirectly predicted better general health and mental well-being, whereas the use of more certainty and causation words marginally deteriorated health and well-being. This study provides evidence for media-centered cathartic effects and some explanatory mechanisms for their health consequences. Theoretical, research, and practical implications are discussed in light of future catharsis research and in support of nonimmediate or delayed media effects; study limitations and suggestions for follow-up investigations are also offered.
\n\n\tThe use of catharsis as a theoretical explanation for the redeeming qualities of expressing emotions has been made in social psychology research on real life events and traumas (Greenberg et al., 1996; Pennebaker & Beall, 1986) and in media psychology research on tragic drama (Zillmann, 1998). Media-induced catharsis is particularly valuable as a form of emotional coping without directly visiting the realities of everyday existence. The merit of catharsis through media that are designed for leisurely pursuits lies in the relative security of its indirect nature; distressing events experienced through fiction are not stained with personal memories, unlike the evocation of personal life events, and may enhance media users development of psychological resilience to future episodes of undesirable emotional upheavals. Consequently, this catharsis study has attempted a novel application of the activity of expressive contemplation on human drama consumption and found evidence of benefits after a meaningful entertainment experience. In the process of this investigation, a new catharsis theory for media psychology was tested and indirect health effects were found for individuals who underwent self-reflection by writing a short essay on the tragic events portrayed in the human story to which they were exposed through storytelling media. The empirical evidence from this initial exploration of a catharsis theory not rooted in the pervasive notion of emotional purgation showed that the cinematic media has a high potential for facilitating catharsis through drama, especially when the vicarious experience is coupled with language-based introspection. Moreover, additional evidence suggests that the process of contemplation via a flexible personal outlook, as opposed to adopting fixed judgments on the fictional scenario, strongly promotes mental well-being in the subsequent weeks. Overall, these are notable findings in light of the disfavored reputation of this ancient concept in contemporary communications and psychology research. As a form of insight-gaining recreation attained through a stimulated imagination, catharsis appears to be very much alive and well.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31075" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-17T18:42:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33171, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "c1ca34f2-1638-449e-b72e-f3a492701973", "siteSettingsId": 33171, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21076, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The influence of video game controllers and mirror images", "slug": "the-influence-of-video-game-controllers-and-mirror-images", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-influence-of-video-game-controllers-and-mirror-images", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:06-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:48:38-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33171, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-influence-of-video-game-controllers-and-mirror-images", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-influence-of-video-game-controllers-and-mirror-images", "subtitle": "on game-player’s self-awareness, sense of control and enjoyment", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "22826" ], "studentResearchers": { "40882": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jeeyun Oh", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40885": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Mun-Young Chung", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis study aims to explore the mechanism of game player enjoyment driven by the type of video game controllers. If total cut-off from reality is important for constructing immersive gameplay, the effect of motion controllers on players’ enjoyment will differ relying on how keenly players are aware of themselves who are physically existing in the real worlds. Another possible mechanism is that players’ perceived control over the gameplay decides their level of enjoyment. This study investigates both theoretical possibilities by manipulating players’ self-awareness and measuring their sense of control over the gameplay and ease of use, and examining the relationships between these variables and players’ enjoyment.
\n\n\tH1: The presence of mirror in the room will increase the degree of self-awareness.
\n\n\tH2: The main effect of the presence of mirror in the room on the degree of self-awareness will be more pronounced for those who use a motion controller.
\n\n\tH3: The degree of self-awareness will negatively predict the level of presence.
\n\n\tH4: The level of presence will positively predict the level of enjoyment.
\n\n\tH5: The presence of mirror in the room will decrease the degree of presence (H5a) and enjoyment (H5b).
\n\n\tH6: The negative effect of the presence of a mirror in the room on the degree of presence (H6a) and enjoyment (H6b) will be more pronounced for those who use a motion controller.
\n\n\tH7: Motion controller will induces less sense of control over the gameplay (H7a) and less sense of ease of use (H7b) than non-motion controller.
\n\n\tH8: The presence of a mirroring display will create less sense of control over the gameplay (H8a) and less sense of ease of use (H8b) compared to the control condition.
\n\n\tH9: Sense of control will positively predict enjoyment.
\n\n\tH10: Motion controller (H10a) and the presence of mirroring display (H10b) will create less enjoyment on the gameplay.
\n\n\tA 2 (Motion controller condition vs. Nunchuk condition) X 2 (Mirror condition vs. Control condition) between-subject experiment has been performed to test the hypotheses. A total of 62 undergraduate students were recruited from classes at Penn State University (average age 21, 47 females). Westchester map in Tiger Woods PGA Tour ’08 was used for the experiment. Nintendo Wii console with 42-inch screen was employed. All settings kept constant across the conditions such that the easiest playing options were chosen, except for the type of game controllers and the presence of a mirroring display in the room.
\n\n\tSelf-awareness. A significant interaction effect between the type of controllers and the mirroring self-image was found for the degree of self-awareness, F (1, 58) = 8.28, p < .01. With the motion controller, participants were less aware of how their body was moving during the gameplay when they were able to see themselves through the laptop screen (M = 4.02, SE =.23) compared to when they were not able to do it (M = 4.39, SE =.22). However, with Nunchuk controller, the pattern was the opposite. Participants were more aware of their body movement when they were able to see themselves through the screen (M = 4.76, SE =.23) than when they were not able to do it (M = 3.83, SE =.23).
\n\n\tSense of control. A significant interaction effect was found for sense of control, F (1, 58) = 5.22, p < .05. With the motion controller, participants were less likely to feel that they had control over the gameplay when they were able to see themselves through the laptop (M = 4.47, SE =.36) compared to when they did not see themselves (M = 5.06, SE =.34). With Nunchuk controller, they were more likely feel that they had control over the gameplay when they were able to see themselves (M = 5.27, SE =.36) than when they were not (M = 4.23, SE =.36).
\n\n\tEase of use. Similar with the interaction effects emerged for sense of control and self-awareness, there was a significant interaction effect was found for ease of use, F (1, 58) = 4.79, p < .05.
\n\n\tPredictors for enjoyment. First, a multiple regression analysis was performed to examine the type of controllers, the presence of mirroring display, the interaction term between the two manipulated factors, self-awareness, and presence as predictors of enjoyment (Table 2). These variables accounted for a significant portion of the variance in enjoyment (F (5, 56) = 2.41, p < .05, adjusted R2 = .104). Spatial presence was the only significant, positive predictor of the level of enjoyment. However, the significant effect of spatial presence disappeared when sense of control was introduced to the model (Table 3). Instead, the sense of control had a significant positive impact on the level of enjoyment. The model accounted for a significant portion of the variance in enjoyment (F (6, 55) = 5.44, p < .001, adjusted R2 = .304).
\n\n\tThe presence of a mirror image of oneself seems to make differences in participants’ perception of the physical control over the gameplay, rather than in immersion, presence, or enjoyment. Overall, participants perceived the game controller was easier to use and felt in control over the gameplay, when they were looking themselves with Nunchuk controller. For the motion controller, the fact that they were looking themselves worked as a negative factor for the perceived control over the gameplay and perceived ease of use of the controller. One possible explanation would be that looking oneself creates a certain degree of self-confirmation so much so that it creates a sense of control over the whole process of gameplay, including the operation of the game controller, especially when the mirrored image of self is compatible with their pre-existing images of self. Compared to the motion controller, Nunchuk controller condition would provide more familiar images of oneself for participants; sitting in front of the computer. When they are looking at themselves behaving something familiar, regardless of the actual result of the behavior, it can lead to the perception that they were the ones who controlled the gameplay. In contrast, looking oneself playing a video game with the motion controller would be unfamiliar to most of participants, thereby could create less sense of control over the whole process of gameplay.
\n\tNeither the mirror image nor the type of motion controller was related to the degree of presence or enjoyment that participants experienced. However, sense of control was a positive and significant predictor for both presence and enjoyment. It also takes out the effect of presence on enjoyment when it is entered as another predictor. These findings suggest that participants’ enjoyment of the gameplay is more likely to rely on how controllable the overall gaming experience is, rather than to be directly affected by the level of presence they experienced in the gameplay. For the sports game examined in this study, the physical control over the gameplay is probably the most important factor to consist of players’ enjoyment.
\n\tElizabeth Hutton & S. Shyam Sundar (2008, May). Can Video Games Enhance Creativity? An experimental investigation of emotion generated by Dance Dance Revolution. Paper to be presented to the Game Studies Division of the International Communication Association at the 58th annual conference in Montreal, Canada.
\n\n\tEducational technology, particularly video games, has captured the imagination of students and has been associated with emotion. Curiosity, fantasy, and challenge are essential characteristics of computer games with educational uses that are intrinsically enjoyable or fun (Malone, 1980). It is well known that teachers use emotion in the classroom to encourage students to learn, and there is some evidence that emotional arousal enhances cognitive functioning (Isen, 1987). But much of the research on the effects of emotion on cognition has had mixed results, especially its effect on creativity. How does emotion enhance or diminish creativity? Does the valence or arousal (i.e., the intensity of emotion) improve creative thought?
\n\n\tRQ1: How do various facets of creativity vary as a function of emotion, defined for this experiment as valence and levels of arousal, either independently or together?
\n\tRQ2: How do energy levels either physical or mental vary as a function of levels of arousal?
\n\tHypotheses:
\n\tH1: Lower arousal levels will be associated with higher creative scores.
\n\tH2: As the level of arousal induced by exercise increases, self-reports of energy levels during a subsequent creative task will increase, up to a point.
\n\tH3: High and low levels of arousal will result in lower creativity.
\n\tH4: Positive valence will have a significant effect on ideation, while negative valence and arousal will have none.
\n\tH5: A positive mood will increase the number of original ideas produced.
\n\tH6: A positive mood will facilitate fluency.
\n\tH7: A positive mood will result in higher creative self-efficacy scores.
\n\tTo examine the direct and combined effects of arousal and valence on creativity, a 2 (mood) x 3 (physical exertion) between subjects factorial experiment was conducted. The first independent variable was valence with two conditions, either a positive or negative mood, and the second independent variable was arousal with three levels of physical exertion, low, medium, and high. The valence of mood was induced by manipulation of a score on a purposefully ambiguous emotion recognition test, while the level of exertion was based on playing the video game Dance Dance Revolution at three levels of exertion: low, medium and high.
\n\tThere was one dependent variable: a creativity test, the Abbreviated Torrance Test for Adults (Goff & Torrance, 2002) to measure divergent thinking. Divergent thinking, an aspect of creativity, is the tendency to respond to problems with a diversity of ideas (Toplyn, 1999).
\n\tA total of ninety-eight participants initially took part in the study. Ninety-seven were undergraduate and graduate students enrolled at a large university in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States, and one was a prospective student. Eighty participants received class credit; eighteen participated without any credit in order to observe how a quantitative research study is conducted. All students who received extra credit had an opportunity to receive the same amount of credit by completing an alternative assignment.
\n\tThe researcher recruited students face-to-face from communication and education classes and explained that the purpose of the study was to explore the relationship between emotion and cognition, through the video game Dance Dance Revolution. Students interested in participating signed up during class for a date and time to come to a media effects lab on campus. All participants signed an informed consent form prior to their participation in the experiment.
\n\tA 2 (mood) by 3 (level of exertion) factorial ANOVA was conducted to test the effects of arousal and valence independently and together on creativity. The analysis yielded two effects for arousal: one near significant effect on flexibility, a subset of creativity, and one main effect on self-reported attentional intensity. A main effect for valence on originality, a subset of creativity, approached significance. In addition, there were two significant interactions between arousal and valence, one for the creativity index, and one for a subset of that index, fluency.
\n\tHypothesis 1 predicted that lower arousal levels would be associated with higher creative scores, while Hypothesis 3 predicted the opposite: high and low levels of arousal would result in lower creativity. A factorial ANOVA revealed that a main effect for level of exertion on flexibility approached significance F(2,84) = 2.71, p = .07; See Figure 1). A significant quadratic trend = 3.1, p < .05 lends support to Hypothesis 1, but not to Hypothesis 3. The near significant effect of arousal on flexibility indicates that a low and high level of arousal, rather than a medium level, is more likely to improve the ability to process information or objects in different ways.
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/1.gif\")
\n\tFigure 1: Flexibility as a Function of Level of Exertion
\n\n\tHypothesis 2 predicted that an increased level of arousal induced by exercise would result in a report of increased energy, but only up to an optimal level. A factorial ANOVA revealed a main effect for level of exertion on post-stimulation attentional intensity (F(2,81) = 3.38, p < 0.05), with participants at a medium level of exertion reporting a significantly higher mean score for attentional intensity (M = 30.57) than those who participated at a high level (M = 26.77) (see Figure 2).
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/2.gif\")
\n\tFigure 2: Attentional Intensity as a Function of Level of Exertion
\n\tHypothesis 4 predicted that positive valence would have a significant effect on the generation of ideas, whereas negative valence and arousal would have none. Hypotheses 5 and 6 respectively, predicted that a positive mood would increase the number of original ideas produced, and a positive mood would increase the number of ideas. There was no main effect for valence on the creativity index score (F (1,84) = .14, p > .05). A factorial ANOVA revealed a near significant main effect for valence on the number of new ideas (originality) F (1,84) = 3.20, p = .08, but in the opposite direction predicted by Hypothesis 5 (see Figure 3). A negative mood produced more original ideas than a positive mood. There was no main effect for valence on the number of ideas produced (F (1,84) = .55, p > .05).
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/3.gif\")
\n\tFigure 3: Originality as a Function of Valence
\n\tHypothesis 7 predicted that a positive mood would result in higher creative self-efficacy scores. There was no main effect for valence on creative self-efficacy (F (1,83) = .00, p > .05).Although not hypothesized, the following findings lend support to the overall idea of this study that emotion does significantly affect creativity. A factorial ANOVA revealed two significant interactions between valence and arousal: one on the overall creativity index (F (2,84) = 3.43, p < .05)(see Figure 4) and one on fluency or number of ideas (F (2,84) = 6.65, p < .01)(see Figure 5).
\n\n\t
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/4_1.gif\")
\n\tFigure 4: Creativity Index as a Function of the Interaction Between Valence and Arousal
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/5.gif\")
\n\tFigure 5: Fluency or number of ideas as a Function of the Interaction Between Valence and Arousal
\n\tWhile Hypothesis 1 was supported in that lower arousal levels were associated with higher creative scores, the interaction extends that finding and shows a more complex picture of the effects of emotion on creativity: low exertion (arousal) levels resulted in higher creative scores only when coupled with a negative mood. At high exertion levels, a positive mood resulted in higher creative scores. The significant interaction between valence and arousal on the creative index lent no support to the prediction of Hypothesis 3 that high and low levels of arousal will result in lower creativity.
\n\tWhile Hypothesis 4 predicted that positive valence would have a significant effect on the generation of ideas, the interaction provides support for that prediction only at a high level of exertion. Contrary to the prediction of the second half of Hypothesis 4, that negative valence and arousal would have no effect on creativity, the interaction shows that when combined, negative valence and a low level of exertion yield the highest creativity index scores. Table 1 shows the means associated with this interaction, and illustrates that a negative valence-low exertion level condition was significantly higher than either a negative valence-medium exertion level or a positive valence-medium exertion level. A positive valence-high exertion level was significantly higher than a positive valence-medium exertion level.
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-04-17_at_11.41.19_AM.png\")
\n\tTable 1: Creativity Index Scores: Valence X Level of Exertion
\n\n\tDirection of valence and arousal revealed a more complex picture of emotion’s effect on fluency, similar to its effect on the overall creativity index, only stronger. Fluency is not affected by positive valence alone, but is at its highest when positive valence is combined with a high level of exertion; still, this condition was second to the highest score for fluency which resulted from the low arousal-negative valence condition. Table 2 shows the means associated with this interaction, and illustrates that a negative valence-low exertion level condition was significantly higher than four of six other conditions: a negative valence-medium exertion level, a positive valence-medium exertion level, a negative valence-high exertion level, and a positive valence-low exertion level. A positive valence-high exertion level was significantly higher than three of six other conditions: a negative valence-high exertion level, a positive valence-medium exertion level and a positive valence-low level of exertion.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-04-17_at_11.41.27_AM.png\")
\n\tTable 2 Fluency Scores: Valence X Level of Exertion
\n\n\tThe Combined Effect of Arousal and Valence on Creativity
\n\n\tA significant interaction between valence and arousal, on the overall creativity index lends support to the main hypothesis of this study that emotion does significantly affect creativity. The idea that creativity is a complex construct with a variety of aspects is supported by strong findings for the combined effect of valence and arousal on fluency, or number of ideas; different aspects of creativity may respond to mood in unique ways, as fluency did in this study. The picture is complex and incomplete without further research.
\n\n\tIn both of the above interactions, mood moderated the effect of arousal such that for high and low levels of arousal, valence moderated the effect on creativity. Positive valence lead to significantly greater creativity, compared to negative valence, at high levels of exertion, while negative valence lead to significantly greater creativity at low levels of arousal. At moderate levels of arousal, valence had no significant effect.
\n\n\tThe two significant interactions of valence and arousal on the creativity index and fluency may be explained by going back to detailed accounts of Yerkes-Dodson experiment. Yerkes and Dodson (1908) found that “the effects of the shock [to the mice] were more pronounced in difficult discriminations and the optimum level of shock was higher in easy discriminations” (Kahneman, 1973, p.34).
\n\n\tIf one thinks of an unexpected negative mood manipulation as the equivalent of a shock, then at the higher levels of arousal, a negative mood manipulation might cause creative performance (the equivalent of difficult discriminations) to drop, whereas at lower levels of arousal it might cause performance to rise. Perhaps this aspect of Yerkes and Dodson’s experiment explains why the combination of low arousal-negative mood resulted in high creative scores, and the combination of high arousal-negative mood resulted in lower scores.
\n\n\tThe Effect of Arousal on Creativity
\n\n\tThe finding that self-reports of mental energy (attentional intensitiy) rose in association with the change from low to medium levels in exertion, and then decreased, at the high level of exertion, follows the pattern set by Yerkes-Dodson law where arousal has an optimal level beyond which performance decreases. If as hypothesized, creativity is associated with broad and diffused attention, then a high attention level would focus on central and highly relevant cues, not incidental and remote cues. Those cues become available only at low and high levels of exertion when attention become broader and defocused, resulting in an increased pool of resources from which to draw creative thoughts. In this study, arousal at a low and high level, had a near significant effect on flexibility, the ability to process information or objects in different ways, indicating support for this line of reasoning. Together the findings support the associational theory of creativity and supports the importance of the intensity of arousal in deploying attention either in a narrow or a broad way in order to retrieve resources used in the construction of creative thoughts. They imply that intensity or arousal does enhance capacity as suggested by the activation theory of arousal.
\n\n\tThe Effect of Valence on Creativity
\n\n\tThe effect of valence on creativity in this study was mixed. A main effect for negative valence on originality approached significance, a finding that was not predicted by either affect as prime or affect as information theory. Yet when arousal is high or low, valence mediates creative output significantly, suggesting that it plays an important role, but one that is secondary to that of arousal. This secondary role may explain why blood-and-guts media is so popular despite the off-putting death and destruction on screen; viewers are drawn in by the intensity of the arousal, rather than by the positive or negative valence of the scenes.
\n\n\tTheoretical and Practical Implications
\n\n\tIs it arousal or is it valence that may improve creativity? The unexpected effect of interactions between valence and arousal on a creative index and on fluency supported a proposed link between the Yerkes-Dodson law and the associational theory of creativity (Toplyn, 1999), including the hypothesis that diffused attention seems to be associated with creativity.
\n\n\tThe pattern of Yerkes-Dodson’s law emerged in self-reports of increased mental energy during the creativity test, that corresponded to increased level of exertion, but only up to the moderate level. This finding supports Zillmann's excitation transfer theory, discrepancy arousal theory, and the activation theory of arousal.
\n\n\tGiven the idea that the complexity of open-ended creative tests of divergent thinking increase as a function of an individual's originality (Toplyn, 1999) , the findings of this study that those in low arousal-negative mood and those in high arousal-positive mood performed best on the creativity test, suggests that arousal will play a different role in creativity for those who bring high or average levels of originality to the process. The findings of this study support the idea from Toplyn (1999) that for those high in originality, low arousal conditions are best, whereas for those who are average in originality, moderate arousal may allow one's attention to be deployed in a way that will facilitate creativity. In any case it is the impact of the interaction of arousal and valence on attention that allows individuals to maximize limited capacity and produce new ideas (Toplyn, 1999). This line of reasoning draws from Mednick's (1962) associational theory of creativity, where diffused attention is associated with creativity, and Kahneman's limited capacity of attention ideas (1973).
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31075" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-17T00:15:16-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33160, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "12c35aae-dac1-415b-b025-e45c08a87c57", "siteSettingsId": 33160, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21072, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Do we improve, disrupt, or embrace sadness? exploring sadness-based media choice and its anticipated", "slug": "do-we-improve-disrupt-or-embrace-sadness-exploring-sadness-based-media", "uri": "medialab/research-article/do-we-improve-disrupt-or-embrace-sadness-exploring-sadness-based-media", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:04-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:09:54-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33160, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/do-we-improve-disrupt-or-embrace-sadness-exploring-sadness-based-media", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/do-we-improve-disrupt-or-embrace-sadness-exploring-sadness-based-media", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23149" ], "studentResearchers": { "40869": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jinhee Kim", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tKim, J., & Oliver, M. B. (2007). Do we improve, disrupt, or embrace sadness? Exploring sadness-based media choice and its anticipated effects on coping. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Montreal, Canada.
\n\n\tSadness, unlike other negative feelings, is unique in that its main causes are related to unpreventable and irreversible harm without any blamable objects. Due to these characteristics, previous theories of media use that center on enjoyment-focused use are not sufficient to explain sad viewers’ media use that is often inconsistent with hedonism-driven selection. To provide clues to understanding sadness-based media choice, the present study explores (a) cognitive antecedents that result in sad feelings (irrevocable loss of or separation from valuable people); identifies (b) people’s perceived salient goals in regard to coping with the sad feelings (improving, distracting, or embracing); and suggests (c) media genres that have structural similarities to the goals that sad people want to fulfill (comedy, game show, or sad drama). In addition to predicting media choices that are congruent with sad people’s perceived salient goals, anticipated emotional and cognitive outcomes resulting from the use of three media genres are included as potential mediators between sadness and media selection.
\n\n\tA total of four research hypotheses were posited to predict sad viewers’ media choice. If Zillmann’s theory is correct, sad viewers will choose content to satisfy the goal of hedonism—replacing sad feelings with pleasant ones.
\n\n\tH1a: Sad individuals will be more likely than neutral individuals to prefer media content presenting positive hedonic values (e.g., comedies).
\n\n\tZillmann’s theory also predicts that sad people prefer media content presenting absorbing potential (devoid of humor) to effectively disrupt sad feelings.
\n\n\tH1b: Sad individuals will be more likely than neutral individuals to prefer media content presenting a strong absorbing potential (e.g., quiz shows).
\n\n\tBuilding on theory of coping with sadness, it is hypothesized that sad individuals seek to view sad dramas to satisfy goals of gaining new perspectives and insight into their sad life events. Additionally, theories of catharsis and meta-mood experience that focus on favorable emotional benefits also predict preference for this genre.
\n\n\tH1c: Sad individuals will be more likely than neutral individuals to prefer sadness-inducing media (e.g., sad dramas).
\n\n\tFinally, if goals of sadness-regulation are affected by emotion-socialization processes, males and females would have distinct goals of sadness regulation and therefore, they would choose different media genres.
\n\n\tH2: While sad females will be more likely than sad males to prefer sadness-inducing media (consistent with H1c), sad males will be more likely than sad females to prefer either hedonically pleasant or absorbing content (consistent with H1a or H1b).
\n\n\tFinally, in order to determine theoretical processes that will significantly mediate the relationship between sadness and preference for sad dramas, a series of path analyses with multiple mediators will be conducted.
\n\n\tRQ1: Among theories of meta-mood, catharsis beliefs, downward social comparison, and positive re-interpretations, which mechanisms play a significant role(s) in mediating the relationship between sadness and preference for sadness-inducing media?
\n\n\tOne-hundred undergraduate students (60 females and 40 males) participated in the present study. A 2 (Affect: Sad or Neutral) X 3 (Media Genre: Sad Drama, Comedy, or Game Show) X 2 (Gender) mixed-design experiment with affect and gender as between-subjects factors and media genre as a within-subjects factor was conducted to examine sad viewers’ media choice. Anticipated reactions (i.e., both feelings and thoughts) when choosing each of the three media genres were also measured to explore theoretical mechanisms underlying each media choice. Anticipate feelings included Unhappy, Elated, Annoyed, and Calm feelings. Anticipated thoughts included Cognitive Learning, Catharsis Beliefs, Meta-Mood Experience, Distraction, and Entertainment.
\n\n\tA 2 (Affect: Sad or Neutral) X 2 (Gender) X 3 (Genre: Sad Drama, Comedy, or Game Show) repeated measures analysis of variance employing a multivariate approach was conducted to examine how relative media preferences vary as a function of manipulated affect and the participant’s gender. This analysis revealed a significant main effect for Genre, Wilks’ ? = .31, F (2, 95) = 106.76, p < .001, ?p2 = .69, showing that most participants preferred to watch comedies (M = 5.58a, SE = .12) over sad dramas (M = 3.90b, SE = .14) or game shows (M = 3.65b, SE = .14). However, the hypothesized expected interaction for Mood X Genre was not significant, Wilks’ ? = .98, F (2, 95) = 1.04, p = .36, ?p2 = .02.
\n\n\tAlthough these findings suggest that media choice does not vary as a function of manipulated affect (i.e., non-significant simple or total effects), sadness may indirectly affect individuals’ media choice through certain intervening variables. Therefore, mediation analyses for each genre employing bootstrapping procedures were conducted to assess specific indirect effects of sadness on media preference through anticipated four emotional and five cognitive responses respectively. Results showed that two specific indirect effects were significant with anticipated emotional responses as mediators: Sadness indirectly affected low levels of preference for comedies and game shows through anticipated unhappy feelings (estimated indirect effect = -.04, -.097 < CI < -.001) and anticipated annoyed feelings (estimated indirect effect = -.04, -.105 < CI < -.001) respectively. Additionally, one specific indirect effect was significant with anticipated cognitive responses as mediators: Sadness indirectly affected preference for sad dramas through anticipated learning outcomes (estimated indirect effect = .05, .0001 < CI < .134).
\n\n\tFigures. Path diagrams with anticipated feelings or thoughts as mediators.
\n\n\tNote 1. +p < .10, *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001. Regression coefficients (B) are near arrows. Mediators highlighted with gray colors represent significant specific indirect effects at p < .05.
\n\tNote 2. Numbers inside parentheses are total effects of sadness on preference for comedies, game shows, and sad dramas respectively, without including mediators.
\n\tFindings suggest that although most sad viewers wanted to watch comedies over sad dramas or game shows, some of them preferred to watch sad dramas. In this case, their main goal of sadness regulation was to embrace sad feelings through transforming their pessimistic thoughts into positive ones, indicating that some sad viewers use media for purposes other than simple hedonism. Therefore, sad dramas with their powerful, informed, inspiring, and philosophical messages could be useful resources for such a cognitive coping strategy. Additionally, findings showing that some sad viewers avoided either comedies or game shows call for greater attention to theorize the nature of their underlying theoretical mechanisms. These avoidance tendencies may imply that media portrayals of celebrations and daily pleasure may not be desirable for some viewers and entertaining or distracting experiences from media consumption are not always functional.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31075" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-17T00:14:28-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33155, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "3b358d16-4231-43db-8804-9714a8ce24a4", "siteSettingsId": 33155, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21069, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Toward an understanding of the emotive structure and motivational systems and their influence on th", "slug": "toward-an-understanding-of-the-emotive-structure-and-motivational-systems-a", "uri": "medialab/research-article/toward-an-understanding-of-the-emotive-structure-and-motivational-systems-a", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:03-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:09:53-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33155, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/toward-an-understanding-of-the-emotive-structure-and-motivational-systems-a", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/toward-an-understanding-of-the-emotive-structure-and-motivational-systems-a", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "22828" ], "studentResearchers": { "40862": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Changmin Yan", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tIn this project, I tested and utilized two competing structural models of affect and motivational systems, the valence model and the functional model, to investigate the interaction of emotions (happiness, anger, and fear) and framing of health messages (gain and loss). Before a formative test of hypotheses, I conducted three pretests to identify a valid emotion induction method and to develop effective and credible framed messages. Pretest 1 found that the Montreal Affective Voices failed to induce the intended emotions. Results from Pretest 2 indicated that the Life Event Inventory Task successfully induced distinct and robust happiness, anger, and fear. Pretest 3 offered convincing evidence that the framed messages developed for this project were perceived to convey the intended frames and credible information. Using the Life Event Inventory Task and the pretested messages, Study 1 formally tested the hypotheses. First, compared to the valence model, the functional model better accounted for the relationship between emotions and motivational systems (behavioral approach system, BAS, and behavioral inhibition system, BIS). Second, as prescribed by the functional model, I found interactions of emotion and framing to significantly influence attitude. While gain frames produced more favorable attitudes for happy and angry participants, loss frames yielded more favorable attitudes among fearful individuals. I also conducted Study 2 to replicate Study 1, to test a causal model for the emotion-by-framing interaction, and to identify the dominant motivational system under different emotion-by-framing match conditions. Consistent with Study 1, the functional model was again supported. However, only partial support for the emotion-by-framing interaction on intention was found. Structural equation modeling results revealed that emotion and framing had indirect effects on attitude and intention via message related cognition and fear. Additional model comparisons indicated that BAS guided the persuasion process when the approach emotions (anger and happiness) coupled with gain frames; BIS predicted the process when inhibition emotion (fear) fitted with loss frames. I discussed both theoretical and practical implications at the end.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31075" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-14T06:04:33-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33151, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "bde33bea-3cbc-44cf-86d2-2678ee937f9f", "siteSettingsId": 33151, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21067, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The effects of narrative media on self-perceptions: The role of identification and narrative engage", "slug": "the-effects-of-narrative-media-on-self-perceptions-the-role-of-identificati", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-effects-of-narrative-media-on-self-perceptions-the-role-of-identificati", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:02-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:09:52-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33151, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-effects-of-narrative-media-on-self-perceptions-the-role-of-identificati", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-effects-of-narrative-media-on-self-perceptions-the-role-of-identificati", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23149" ], "studentResearchers": { "40856": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Julia K. Woolley", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tRecent media effects research has investigated how experiences of engagement with media narratives can impact beliefs and attitudes on a wide variety of topics (e.g. Slater, 2002; Strange, 2002). One additional, important area of application for this research is in the role of media narratives in constructing views of the self and one's own life experiences. While this area of application has gained increasing attention over recent years (e.g. Appel, Richter, & Calio, 2011; Djikic, Oatley, Zoeterman, & Peterson, 2009; Gabriel & Young, 2011; Sestir & Green, 2010), many questions about the influence of media narratives on self-perceptions remain unanswered, including the nature and mechanisms of such effects, and the characteristics of media texts which lead to these outcomes. The current study uses an experimental method to test the importance of media exposure in general, as well as the importance of media structure (narrative versus non-narrative), in leading to shifts in self-concept and self-narrative themes. The mechanisms through which narrative (as opposed to non-narrative) media may be particularly influential in this regard, namely via experiences of narrative engagement and identification, are also explored.
\n\n\tH1: Characteristics of the self-narrative and self-concept will be positively related.
\n\tH2: Narrative media structure will result in greater congruency between media characteristics and characteristics of the self-narrative and self-concept than will non- narrative media structure.
\n\tH3: Both narrative and non-narrative media structure will result in greater congruency between media characteristics and characteristics of the self-narrative and self-concept than will a non-media control condition.
\n\tH4: Narrative media structure will lead to greater identification than non-narrative media structure.
\n\tH5: Narrative media structure will lead to greater transportation than non-narrative media structure.
\n\tH6: Identification and transportation will be positively correlated.
\n\tH7: Greater identification will lead to greater congruency between media characteristics and characteristics of the self-narrative and self-concept.
\n\tH8: Greater transportation will lead to greater congruency between media characteristics and characteristics of the self-narrative and self-concept.
\n\tH9: Identification and transportation will mediate the relationships between narrativity and congruency between media characteristics and characteristics of the self-narrative and self-concept.
\n\tRQ1: What will be more strongly associated with congruency between media characteristics and characteristics of the self-narrative and self-concept: transportation or identification?
\n\tThis study sought to examine if and how media presentations can influence viewers’ self- perceptions. The proposed model hypothesizes that narrative media format will be more influential than non-narrative media format in its effects on self-views, based on its ability to encourage experiences of engagement. The current method implemented a quantitative experimental design to test the proposed model. The use of a quantitative approach answers the call from some recent scholars to integrate psychological work on personal narrative with literary approaches to film and media (e.g. Weilnbock, 2009). The use of a quantitative approach is called for here given that the current study seeks to make generalizations about how media impact self-narratives, rather than explain individual instances of media use in rich detail.
\n\n\tResults indicate that in general, media structure does not predict self-perception outcomes. However, the results do lend partial support for the hypothesized direct effect of media exposure on self-narrative outcomes. Specifically, they suggest that media exposure may lead viewers to incorporate some aspects of media content and themes in forming prospective self-narratives. However, these results do not suggest that these effects are contingent upon narrative media structure or experiences of narrative engagement. Theoretical and practical implications, limitations, and potential future directions are also discussed.
\n\n\tOverall, while the results of the current research were generally not supportive of the proposed hypotheses, they do suggest that viewers may incorporate some aspects of media content and themes in forming prospective self-narratives. However, these results do not suggest that these effects are contingent upon narrative media structure or experiences of narrative engagement. This study expands upon and contributes to a growing area of empirical research investigating the effects of media on self-views, by both experimentally testing the importance of narrativity in these processes, and expanding self-perception outcomes to include self-narratives. This particular area of research has important implications for individuals' psychological well- being and general societal health, including outcomes ranging from the valence of self- perceptions to political beliefs. Future research should use a diversity of methods to continue to explore the characteristics of media texts and technologies which lead to changes in self- perceptions, and parse the various mechanisms through which such influences may occur.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31075" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-14T05:59:50-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33147, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "e6920a98-8b9a-4114-b7e0-652f89c3ef29", "siteSettingsId": 33147, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21065, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Positive mood induction effects of television programs on political messages", "slug": "positive-mood-induction-effects-of-television-programs-on-political-message", "uri": "medialab/research-article/positive-mood-induction-effects-of-television-programs-on-political-message", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:01-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:09:50-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33147, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/positive-mood-induction-effects-of-television-programs-on-political-message", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/positive-mood-induction-effects-of-television-programs-on-political-message", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40848": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Nokon Heo", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis study explored the impact of television program-induced mood as a mediating variable of attitude change in response to negative political advertisements. Research and theory show that relative to people in a neutral mood, people experiencing a positive mood are likely to show a reduction in systematic processing of complex information and a greater tendency to rely on rapid, and less effortful judgement of heuristics in persuasive communications. Likewise, when faced with a decision, they tend to simplify their cognitive task, choosing quick and easy strategies and relying more on intuitive and heuristic solutions (such as the presence of color in commercials) than on effortful algorithms.
\n\n\tH1: Participants in a positive mood, compared to those in a neutral mood, will show lesser recall of message-relevant information.
\n\n\tH2: Participants who saw the black-and-white version of the political advertisement will evaluate the targeted candidate more negatively than participants who saw the color version of the same advertisement.
\n\n\tH3: The persuasive impact of the presence of black-and-white on viewers' attitudes toward the targeted candidate will be significantly greater for participants in a positive mood than for those in a neutral mood.
\n\n\tFifty-six participants in a fully-crossed 2 (positive vs. neutral) by 2 (black-and-white vs. color) factorial between-participants experiment, were randomly assigned to either a positive or neutral mood condition.
\n\n\tParticipants in the positive condition saw a 13-min videotaped performance of a talk-show host (Jay Leno) on a network television program.
\n\n\tParticipants in the positive condition saw a 13-min videotaped performance of a talk-show host (Jay Leno) on a network television program.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/moodinduction1.gif\")
\n\tAt the end of the second commercial break, participants in both conditions viewed the political advertisement. Half of the participants in each of the two mood conditions saw a negative political commercial in black-and-white.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/moodinduction3.jpg\")
\n\twhile the rest saw the same commercial in color.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/moodinduction4.jpg\")
\n\tAt the end of the videotape, participants completed a questionnaire to measure memory performance, subjects' attitudes toward the candidates, and demographics.
\n\n\tH1: Supported. Participants in positive mood remembered significantly lesser message-relevant material than their neutral counterparts.
\n\n\tH2 : Supported. Participants who saw the black-and-white advertisement thought that the targeted candidate was less credible than did participants who saw the color advertisement.
\n\n\tH3 : Partially supported. The results showed an interaction effect between color and mood state, indicating that participants in the positive mood were less likely (than participants in the neutral mood) to perceive the targeted candidate as credible after watching himin black-and-white.
\n\n\tIn summary, the findings indicate that television program-induced mood states seem to influence the way viewers process televised commercials embedded in programs. Viewers in a positive mood seem to process the messages peripherally and rely on heuristic cues in their evaluations of political figures. It can also be concluded that the effectiveness of negative political advertisements, especially using various peripheral cues, can be most effective when followed by positively toned television programs.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31075" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-14T05:53:29-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33141, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "7678007c-af55-4d08-ade1-6dff25a9c8e3", "siteSettingsId": 33141, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21063, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The effects of home video game violence and fantasy portrayals upon enjoyment and emotional state:", "slug": "the-effects-of-home-video-game-violence-and-fantasy-portrayals-upon-enjoyme", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-effects-of-home-video-game-violence-and-fantasy-portrayals-upon-enjoyme", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:29:00-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:09:48-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33141, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-effects-of-home-video-game-violence-and-fantasy-portrayals-upon-enjoyme", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-effects-of-home-video-game-violence-and-fantasy-portrayals-upon-enjoyme", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23149" ], "studentResearchers": { "40838": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "John McGrath", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40840": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Chad Mahood", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tMahood. C., Oliver, M. B., & McGrath, J. (2000, June). The effects of home video game violence and fantasy portrayals upon enjoyment and emotional state: A gender comparison . Paper presented to the Mass Communication Division at the 50th annual conference of the International Communication Association (ICA), Acapulco, Mexico.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/videogame1.jpg\")
\n\tMany critics of the media industry have singled out video games as a major cause of several recent high school shootings such as the incident at Columbine High in Littleton, Colorado. It has been claimed that both student shooters were avid players of Doom, a \"first-person shooter\" video game categorized by high levels of depicted violence. The video game industry has recognized that males seem to enjoy violent video games more than females and have heavily targeted their games toward males. Several studies have shown this to be true. It is of further concern that not only is violence prevalent; the portrayal of violence is highly skewed toward a male perspective. It has also been shown that males may seek out this violence more than do females, but research has been mixed as to whether or not males actually enjoy this violence more than females do? The ambiguity in prior research is mostly likely due to two reasons. First, when research has compared violent video games with non-violent games it may have inadvertently measured an effect for the confounding variable of game genre. Researchers typically compare games that involve shooting, fighting or chasing digital characters (violent condition) with puzzle games (non-violent condition). Secondly, the studies mentioned above have looked at very unrealistic, two-dimensional games. It may also be of practical importance to study if a violent game that depicts fantasy-like creatures differs in effect from a game where the object is to kill more human-like creatures that employ realistic movements and facial characteristics. Given these findings and more recent developments of video game technologies, further research is needed to explore the effects of improved, more realistic portrayals in modern home video games. As the violence in video games becomes more 'real,' what effect will it have?
\n\tSpecifically, we asked the following research questions:
\n\n\tRQ1: Will there be gender differences in emotional agitation after exposure to video games, especially violent ones?
\n\n\tRQ2: Will enjoyment of games be greater if the video game contains realistic human, non-fantasy characters?
\n\n\tRQ3: Will emotional agitation following violent games be greater if the video game contains realistic human, non-fantasy characters?
\n\n\tBased on the research questions and prior research findings, the following hypotheses were proposed:
\n\n\tH1: Males will report playing more video games than females.
\n\n\tH2: Males will report greater enjoyment of most types of video games than will females, but particularly video games that portray violence.
\n\n\tH3: Exposure to violence in video games will increase males' enjoyment, but decrease females' enjoyment.
\n\n\tSeventy-six participants took part in a 2 (violent game demonstration vs. non-violent game demonstration) X 2 (human, non-fantasy enemies vs. alien fantasy enemies) between-subjects design.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/videogame2.jpg\")
\n\tViolent, non-fantasy enemies
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/videogame3.jpg\")
\n\tViolent, alien fantasy enemies
\n\n\tTo maintain maximal control over the manipulation of violent content, subjects in this study were asked to view a demonstration of a video game rather than to engage in actual play (where some subjects may have played the game more violently than others). Before experimental exposure, subjects filled out a paper-and-pencil questionnaire inquiring as to their video game usage and preferences. After exposure, subjects were asked to rate their enjoyment of the game they watched, as well as their present emotional state.
\n\n\tH1: Partially Supported. Although a larger percentage of males than females reported play in arcades, on computers, and on home video games, these differences were significant for home video games alone.
\n\n\tH2: Supported. Consistent with Hypothesis 2, males in this study reported greater enjoyment of all video games, especially violent video games (e.g. shooting and fighting).
\n\n\tH3: Partially Supported. Exposure to violence in video games did increase males' enjoyment, but did not affect females' enjoyment.
\n\n\tRQ1: There were gender differences in emotional agitation after exposure to video games. Males were more tense and angry after viewing non-violent video games, while females were more tense and angry following the violent games.
\n\n\tRQ2: Enjoyment of video games did not differ as a function of realism of characters.
\n\n\tRQ3: Emotional agitation did not differ as a function of realism of characters.
\n\n\tResults indicate that not only do males play more video games than females, males also have a greater preference for violent games, while males and females prefer non-violent games equally. After viewing experimentally manipulated video games, males appeared to enjoy all the games, but especially the violent ones, more than females did. Yet females had the same level of enjoyment for both violent and non-violent games. Males and females also had differing levels of tension and anger following violent video games. Finally, fantasy violence had the same effect as more realistic violence upon both males and females.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31070" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-14T05:38:01-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33137, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "32e77115-31e4-4572-b487-36a57250b242", "siteSettingsId": 33137, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21061, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Can Video Games Enhance Creativity? An experimental investigation of emotion generated by Dance Danc", "slug": "can-video-games-enhance-creativity-an-experimental-investigation-of-emotion", "uri": "medialab/research-article/can-video-games-enhance-creativity-an-experimental-investigation-of-emotion", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:59-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:09:47-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33137, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/can-video-games-enhance-creativity-an-experimental-investigation-of-emotion", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/can-video-games-enhance-creativity-an-experimental-investigation-of-emotion", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40833": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Elizabeth Hutton", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tElizabeth Hutton & S. Shyam Sundar (2008, May). Can Video Games Enhance Creativity? An experimental investigation of emotion generated by Dance Dance Revolution. Paper to be presented to the Game Studies Division of the International Communication Association at the 58th annual conference in Montreal, Canada.
\n\n\tEducational technology, particularly video games, has captured the imagination of students and has been associated with emotion. Curiosity, fantasy, and challenge are essential characteristics of computer games with educational uses that are intrinsically enjoyable or fun (Malone, 1980). It is well known that teachers use emotion in the classroom to encourage students to learn, and there is some evidence that emotional arousal enhances cognitive functioning (Isen, 1987). But much of the research on the effects of emotion on cognition has had mixed results, especially its effect on creativity. How does emotion enhance or diminish creativity? Does the valence or arousal (i.e., the intensity of emotion) improve creative thought?
\n\n\tRQ1: How do various facets of creativity vary as a function of emotion, defined for this experiment as valence and levels of arousal, either independently or together?
\n\tRQ2: How do energy levels either physical or mental vary as a function of levels of arousal?
\n\tHypotheses:
\n\tH1: Lower arousal levels will be associated with higher creative scores.
\n\tH2: As the level of arousal induced by exercise increases, self-reports of energy levels during a subsequent creative task will increase, up to a point.
\n\tH3: High and low levels of arousal will result in lower creativity.
\n\tH4: Positive valence will have a significant effect on ideation, while negative valence and arousal will have none.
\n\tH5: A positive mood will increase the number of original ideas produced.
\n\tH6: A positive mood will facilitate fluency.
\n\tH7: A positive mood will result in higher creative self-efficacy scores.
\n\tTo examine the direct and combined effects of arousal and valence on creativity, a 2 (mood) x 3 (physical exertion) between subjects factorial experiment was conducted. The first independent variable was valence with two conditions, either a positive or negative mood, and the second independent variable was arousal with three levels of physical exertion, low, medium, and high. The valence of mood was induced by manipulation of a score on a purposefully ambiguous emotion recognition test, while the level of exertion was based on playing the video game Dance Dance Revolution at three levels of exertion: low, medium and high.
\n\tThere was one dependent variable: a creativity test, the Abbreviated Torrance Test for Adults (Goff & Torrance, 2002) to measure divergent thinking. Divergent thinking, an aspect of creativity, is the tendency to respond to problems with a diversity of ideas (Toplyn, 1999).
\n\tA total of ninety-eight participants initially took part in the study. Ninety-seven were undergraduate and graduate students enrolled at a large university in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States, and one was a prospective student. Eighty participants received class credit; eighteen participated without any credit in order to observe how a quantitative research study is conducted. All students who received extra credit had an opportunity to receive the same amount of credit by completing an alternative assignment.
\n\tThe researcher recruited students face-to-face from communication and education classes and explained that the purpose of the study was to explore the relationship between emotion and cognition, through the video game Dance Dance Revolution. Students interested in participating signed up during class for a date and time to come to a media effects lab on campus. All participants signed an informed consent form prior to their participation in the experiment.
\n\tA 2 (mood) by 3 (level of exertion) factorial ANOVA was conducted to test the effects of arousal and valence independently and together on creativity. The analysis yielded two effects for arousal: one near significant effect on flexibility, a subset of creativity, and one main effect on self-reported attentional intensity. A main effect for valence on originality, a subset of creativity, approached significance. In addition, there were two significant interactions between arousal and valence, one for the creativity index, and one for a subset of that index, fluency.
\n\tHypothesis 1 predicted that lower arousal levels would be associated with higher creative scores, while Hypothesis 3 predicted the opposite: high and low levels of arousal would result in lower creativity. A factorial ANOVA revealed that a main effect for level of exertion on flexibility approached significance F(2,84) = 2.71, p = .07; See Figure 1). A significant quadratic trend = 3.1, p < .05 lends support to Hypothesis 1, but not to Hypothesis 3. The near significant effect of arousal on flexibility indicates that a low and high level of arousal, rather than a medium level, is more likely to improve the ability to process information or objects in different ways.
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/emotcreate1.gif\")
\n\tFigure 1: Flexibility as a Function of Level of Exertion
\n\n\tHypothesis 2 predicted that an increased level of arousal induced by exercise would result in a report of increased energy, but only up to an optimal level. A factorial ANOVA revealed a main effect for level of exertion on post-stimulation attentional intensity (F(2,81) = 3.38, p < 0.05), with participants at a medium level of exertion reporting a significantly higher mean score for attentional intensity (M = 30.57) than those who participated at a high level (M = 26.77) (see Figure 2).
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/emotcreate2.gif\")
\n\tFigure 2: Attentional Intensity as a Function of Level of Exertion
\n\n\tHypothesis 4 predicted that positive valence would have a significant effect on the generation of ideas, whereas negative valence and arousal would have none. Hypotheses 5 and 6 respectively, predicted that a positive mood would increase the number of original ideas produced, and a positive mood would increase the number of ideas. There was no main effect for valence on the creativity index score (F (1,84) = .14, p > .05). A factorial ANOVA revealed a near significant main effect for valence on the number of new ideas (originality) F (1,84) = 3.20, p = .08, but in the opposite direction predicted by Hypothesis 5 (see Figure 3). A negative mood produced more original ideas than a positive mood. There was no main effect for valence on the number of ideas produced (F (1,84) = .55, p > .05).
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/emotcreate3.gif\")
\n\tFigure 3: Originality as a Function of Valence
\n\n\tHypothesis 7 predicted that a positive mood would result in higher creative self-efficacy scores. There was no main effect for valence on creative self-efficacy (F (1,83) = .00, p > .05).Although not hypothesized, the following findings lend support to the overall idea of this study that emotion does significantly affect creativity. A factorial ANOVA revealed two significant interactions between valence and arousal: one on the overall creativity index (F (2,84) = 3.43, p < .05)(see Figure 4) and one on fluency or number of ideas (F (2,84) = 6.65, p < .01)(see Figure 5).
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/emotcreate4.gif\")
\n\tFigure 4: Creativity Index as a Function of the Interaction Between Valence and Arousal
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/emotcreate5.gif\")
\n\tFigure 5: Fluency or number of ideas as a Function of the Interaction Between Valence and Arousal
\n\n\tWhile Hypothesis 1 was supported in that lower arousal levels were associated with higher creative scores, the interaction extends that finding and shows a more complex picture of the effects of emotion on creativity: low exertion (arousal) levels resulted in higher creative scores only when coupled with a negative mood. At high exertion levels, a positive mood resulted in higher creative scores. The significant interaction between valence and arousal on the creative index lent no support to the prediction of Hypothesis 3 that high and low levels of arousal will result in lower creativity.
\n\n\t
\n\tWhile Hypothesis 4 predicted that positive valence would have a significant effect on the generation of ideas, the interaction provides support for that prediction only at a high level of exertion. Contrary to the prediction of the second half of Hypothesis 4, that negative valence and arousal would have no effect on creativity, the interaction shows that when combined, negative valence and a low level of exertion yield the highest creativity index scores. Table 1 shows the means associated with this interaction, and illustrates that a negative valence-low exertion level condition was significantly higher than either a negative valence-medium exertion level or a positive valence-medium exertion level. A positive valence-high exertion level was significantly higher than a positive valence-medium exertion level.
\n\tThe Combined Effect of Arousal and Valence on Creativity
\n\n\tA significant interaction between valence and arousal, on the overall creativity index lends support to the main hypothesis of this study that emotion does significantly affect creativity. The idea that creativity is a complex construct with a variety of aspects is supported by strong findings for the combined effect of valence and arousal on fluency, or number of ideas; different aspects of creativity may respond to mood in unique ways, as fluency did in this study. The picture is complex and incomplete without further research.
\n\n\tIn both of the above interactions, mood moderated the effect of arousal such that for high and low levels of arousal, valence moderated the effect on creativity. Positive valence lead to significantly greater creativity, compared to negative valence, at high levels of exertion, while negative valence lead to significantly greater creativity at low levels of arousal. At moderate levels of arousal, valence had no significant effect.
\n\n\tThe two significant interactions of valence and arousal on the creativity index and fluency may be explained by going back to detailed accounts of Yerkes-Dodson experiment. Yerkes and Dodson (1908) found that “the effects of the shock [to the mice] were more pronounced in difficult discriminations and the optimum level of shock was higher in easy discriminations” (Kahneman, 1973, p.34).
\n\n\tIf one thinks of an unexpected negative mood manipulation as the equivalent of a shock, then at the higher levels of arousal, a negative mood manipulation might cause creative performance (the equivalent of difficult discriminations) to drop, whereas at lower levels of arousal it might cause performance to rise. Perhaps this aspect of Yerkes and Dodson’s experiment explains why the combination of low arousal-negative mood resulted in high creative scores, and the combination of high arousal-negative mood resulted in lower scores.
\n\n\tThe Effect of Arousal on Creativity
\n\n\tThe finding that self-reports of mental energy (attentional intensitiy) rose in association with the change from low to medium levels in exertion, and then decreased, at the high level of exertion, follows the pattern set by Yerkes-Dodson law where arousal has an optimal level beyond which performance decreases. If as hypothesized, creativity is associated with broad and diffused attention, then a high attention level would focus on central and highly relevant cues, not incidental and remote cues. Those cues become available only at low and high levels of exertion when attention become broader and defocused, resulting in an increased pool of resources from which to draw creative thoughts. In this study, arousal at a low and high level, had a near significant effect on flexibility, the ability to process information or objects in different ways, indicating support for this line of reasoning. Together the findings support the associational theory of creativity and supports the importance of the intensity of arousal in deploying attention either in a narrow or a broad way in order to retrieve resources used in the construction of creative thoughts. They imply that intensity or arousal does enhance capacity as suggested by the activation theory of arousal.
\n\n\tThe Effect of Valence on Creativity
\n\n\tThe effect of valence on creativity in this study was mixed. A main effect for negative valence on originality approached significance, a finding that was not predicted by either affect as prime or affect as information theory. Yet when arousal is high or low, valence mediates creative output significantly, suggesting that it plays an important role, but one that is secondary to that of arousal. This secondary role may explain why blood-and-guts media is so popular despite the off-putting death and destruction on screen; viewers are drawn in by the intensity of the arousal, rather than by the positive or negative valence of the scenes.
\n\n\tTheoretical and Practical Implications
\n\n\tIs it arousal or is it valence that may improve creativity? The unexpected effect of interactions between valence and arousal on a creative index and on fluency supported a proposed link between the Yerkes-Dodson law and the associational theory of creativity (Toplyn, 1999), including the hypothesis that diffused attention seems to be associated with creativity.
\n\n\tThe pattern of Yerkes-Dodson’s law emerged in self-reports of increased mental energy during the creativity test, that corresponded to increased level of exertion, but only up to the moderate level. This finding supports Zillmann's excitation transfer theory, discrepancy arousal theory, and the activation theory of arousal.
\n\n\tGiven the idea that the complexity of open-ended creative tests of divergent thinking increase as a function of an individual's originality (Toplyn, 1999) , the findings of this study that those in low arousal-negative mood and those in high arousal-positive mood performed best on the creativity test, suggests that arousal will play a different role in creativity for those who bring high or average levels of originality to the process. The findings of this study support the idea from Toplyn (1999) that for those high in originality, low arousal conditions are best, whereas for those who are average in originality, moderate arousal may allow one's attention to be deployed in a way that will facilitate creativity. In any case it is the impact of the interaction of arousal and valence on attention that allows individuals to maximize limited capacity and produce new ideas (Toplyn, 1999). This line of reasoning draws from Mednick's (1962) associational theory of creativity, where diffused attention is associated with creativity, and Kahneman's limited capacity of attention ideas (1973).
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31070" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-14T05:30:38-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33133, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "46bc2f13-b49f-4908-afb8-8a97e5ffd3cd", "siteSettingsId": 33133, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21059, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Do we improve, disrupt, or embrace sadness? exploring sadness-based media choice and its anticipate", "slug": "do-we-improve-disrupt-or-embrace-sadness-exploring-sadness-based-media-choi", "uri": "medialab/research-article/do-we-improve-disrupt-or-embrace-sadness-exploring-sadness-based-media-choi", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:58-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:09:44-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33133, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/do-we-improve-disrupt-or-embrace-sadness-exploring-sadness-based-media-choi", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/do-we-improve-disrupt-or-embrace-sadness-exploring-sadness-based-media-choi", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23149" ], "studentResearchers": { "40823": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jinhee Kim", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tKim, J., & Oliver, M. B. (2007). Do we improve, disrupt, or embrace sadness? Exploring sadness-based media choice and its anticipated effects on coping. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Montreal, Canada.
\n\n\tSadness, unlike other negative feelings, is unique in that its main causes are related to unpreventable and irreversible harm without any blamable objects. Due to these characteristics, previous theories of media use that center on enjoyment-focused use are not sufficient to explain sad viewers’ media use that is often inconsistent with hedonism-driven selection. To provide clues to understanding sadness-based media choice, the present study explores (a) cognitive antecedents that result in sad feelings (irrevocable loss of or separation from valuable people); identifies (b) people’s perceived salient goals in regard to coping with the sad feelings (improving, distracting, or embracing); and suggests (c) media genres that have structural similarities to the goals that sad people want to fulfill (comedy, game show, or sad drama). In addition to predicting media choices that are congruent with sad people’s perceived salient goals, anticipated emotional and cognitive outcomes resulting from the use of three media genres are included as potential mediators between sadness and media selection.
\n\n\tA total of four research hypotheses were posited to predict sad viewers’ media choice. If Zillmann’s theory is correct, sad viewers will choose content to satisfy the goal of hedonism—replacing sad feelings with pleasant ones.
\n\n\tH1a: Sad individuals will be more likely than neutral individuals to prefer media content presenting positive hedonic values (e.g., comedies).
\n\n\tZillmann’s theory also predicts that sad people prefer media content presenting absorbing potential (devoid of humor) to effectively disrupt sad feelings.
\n\n\tH1b: Sad individuals will be more likely than neutral individuals to prefer media content presenting a strong absorbing potential (e.g., quiz shows).
\n\n\tBuilding on theory of coping with sadness, it is hypothesized that sad individuals seek to view sad dramas to satisfy goals of gaining new perspectives and insight into their sad life events. Additionally, theories of catharsis and meta-mood experience that focus on favorable emotional benefits also predict preference for this genre.
\n\n\tH1c: Sad individuals will be more likely than neutral individuals to prefer sadness-inducing media (e.g., sad dramas).
\n\n\tFinally, if goals of sadness-regulation are affected by emotion-socialization processes, males and females would have distinct goals of sadness regulation and therefore, they would choose different media genres.
\n\n\tH2: While sad females will be more likely than sad males to prefer sadness-inducing media (consistent with H1c), sad males will be more likely than sad females to prefer either hedonically pleasant or absorbing content (consistent with H1a or H1b).
\n\n\tFinally, in order to determine theoretical processes that will significantly mediate the relationship between sadness and preference for sad dramas, a series of path analyses with multiple mediators will be conducted.
\n\n\tRQ1: Among theories of meta-mood, catharsis beliefs, downward social comparison, and positive re-interpretations, which mechanisms play a significant role(s) in mediating the relationship between sadness and preference for sadness-inducing media?
\n\n\tOne-hundred undergraduate students (60 females and 40 males) participated in the present study. A 2 (Affect: Sad or Neutral) X 3 (Media Genre: Sad Drama, Comedy, or Game Show) X 2 (Gender) mixed-design experiment with affect and gender as between-subjects factors and media genre as a within-subjects factor was conducted to examine sad viewers’ media choice. Anticipated reactions (i.e., both feelings and thoughts) when choosing each of the three media genres were also measured to explore theoretical mechanisms underlying each media choice. Anticipate feelings included Unhappy, Elated, Annoyed, and Calm feelings. Anticipated thoughts included Cognitive Learning, Catharsis Beliefs, Meta-Mood Experience, Distraction, and Entertainment.
\n\n\tA 2 (Affect: Sad or Neutral) X 2 (Gender) X 3 (Genre: Sad Drama, Comedy, or Game Show) repeated measures analysis of variance employing a multivariate approach was conducted to examine how relative media preferences vary as a function of manipulated affect and the participant’s gender. This analysis revealed a significant main effect for Genre, Wilks’ ? = .31, F (2, 95) = 106.76, p < .001, ?p2 = .69, showing that most participants preferred to watch comedies (M = 5.58a, SE = .12) over sad dramas (M = 3.90b, SE = .14) or game shows (M = 3.65b, SE = .14). However, the hypothesized expected interaction for Mood X Genre was not significant, Wilks’ ? = .98, F (2, 95) = 1.04, p = .36, ?p2 = .02.
\n\n\tAlthough these findings suggest that media choice does not vary as a function of manipulated affect (i.e., non-significant simple or total effects), sadness may indirectly affect individuals’ media choice through certain intervening variables. Therefore, mediation analyses for each genre employing bootstrapping procedures were conducted to assess specific indirect effects of sadness on media preference through anticipated four emotional and five cognitive responses respectively. Results showed that two specific indirect effects were significant with anticipated emotional responses as mediators: Sadness indirectly affected low levels of preference for comedies and game shows through anticipated unhappy feelings (estimated indirect effect = -.04, -.097 < CI < -.001) and anticipated annoyed feelings (estimated indirect effect = -.04, -.105 < CI < -.001) respectively. Additionally, one specific indirect effect was significant with anticipated cognitive responses as mediators: Sadness indirectly affected preference for sad dramas through anticipated learning outcomes (estimated indirect effect = .05, .0001 < CI < .134).
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Jinhee_D1.gif\")
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Jinhee_D2.gif\")
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Jinhee_D3.gif\")
\n\tFigures. Path diagrams with anticipated feelings or thoughts as mediators.
\n\n\tNote 1. +p < .10, *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001. Regression coefficients (B) are near arrows. Mediators highlighted with gray colors represent significant specific indirect effects at p < .05.
\n\tNote 2. Numbers inside parentheses are total effects of sadness on preference for comedies, game shows, and sad dramas respectively, without including mediators.
\n\tFindings suggest that although most sad viewers wanted to watch comedies over sad dramas or game shows, some of them preferred to watch sad dramas. In this case, their main goal of sadness regulation was to embrace sad feelings through transforming their pessimistic thoughts into positive ones, indicating that some sad viewers use media for purposes other than simple hedonism. Therefore, sad dramas with their powerful, informed, inspiring, and philosophical messages could be useful resources for such a cognitive coping strategy. Additionally, findings showing that some sad viewers avoided either comedies or game shows call for greater attention to theorize the nature of their underlying theoretical mechanisms. These avoidance tendencies may imply that media portrayals of celebrations and daily pleasure may not be desirable for some viewers and entertaining or distracting experiences from media consumption are not always functional.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31075" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-07T07:02:44-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33121, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "48fb9b60-6979-4430-aa7d-061f80a3af01", "siteSettingsId": 33121, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21057, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Where do i sit? A study on public internet viewing of pornography and news", "slug": "where-do-i-sit-a-study-on-public-internet-viewing-of-pornography-and-news", "uri": "medialab/research-article/where-do-i-sit-a-study-on-public-internet-viewing-of-pornography-and-news", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:56-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:09:39-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33121, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/where-do-i-sit-a-study-on-public-internet-viewing-of-pornography-and-news", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/where-do-i-sit-a-study-on-public-internet-viewing-of-pornography-and-news", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40800": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sai-Eh Park", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40802": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Mark Pesapane", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40804": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jay Romberg", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40805": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Russell Smith", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40806": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jeff Watkins", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThe growing importance of online communication has spurred research in a number of domains that were once restricted to traditional media. For example, two of the domains that have attracted a lot of research attention are those of online news and internet pornography. This study seeks to contribute to this growing body of research by examining the issue of personal space when viewing either internet pornography or online news.
\n\n\tBased on prior research, it was hypothesized that when choosing to view a pornographic web site, subjects' discomfort levels, companionship, and the awkwardness of sitting next to someone will be greater than those subjects who are going to be viewing a news-oriented web site.
\n\n\tTwenty-five participants took part in a between-participants experiment. They were exposed to two online sites: a news site or a pornography site. Half the participants viewed the news site while the other half viewed the pornography site. Participants in both conditions were told that they would be viewing a particular online site (depending on the condition they were assigned to) and asked to choose a seat in the computer laboratory. After they had been exposed to the relevant site, they were asked to fill out a questionnaire which had items pertaining to frequency and nature of exposure to news sites and pornography sites, as well as some items related to demographic information. Every participant's seating position was recorded.
\n\n\tParticipants viewing pornography chose to sit almost twice as far away from other people as subjects viewing news. Thus, the hypothesis was supported. There were also interesting gender differences. Females preferred almost four times as much space between themselves and others when they viewed pornography as when they viewed news. In contrast, males had no such preference. Further, females were less comfortable with where they were sitting in the pornography condition, while there was no statistically significant difference in the comfort level of males.
\n\n\tThe results from this study contribute to a growing body of research documenting the behavioral aspects of online communication. In addition to the main finding reported, the differences between males and females warrant more thorough investigation. Future research can also examine the implications of an individual's perception of personal space, especially when it interacts with cyberspace.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31067" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-07T06:59:06-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33115, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "848e71df-117c-4685-8655-60df6b6bd0a0", "siteSettingsId": 33115, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21055, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The effects of erotica and dehumanizing pornography in an online interactive environment", "slug": "the-effects-of-erotica-and-dehumanizing-pornography-in-an-online-interactiv", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-effects-of-erotica-and-dehumanizing-pornography-in-an-online-interactiv", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:55-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:09:37-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33115, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-effects-of-erotica-and-dehumanizing-pornography-in-an-online-interactiv", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-effects-of-erotica-and-dehumanizing-pornography-in-an-online-interactiv", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40790": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sriram Kalyanaraman", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40792": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Chad Mahood", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tMahood, C., Kalyanaraman, S., & Sundar, S. S. (2000, August). The effects of erotica and dehumanizing pornography in an online interactive environment. Paper presented to the Communication Theory & Methodology division at the annual conference of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC), Phoenix, AZ.
\n\n\tThis study attempted to examine the interaction between low vs. medium vs. high interactivity and erotica vs. dehumanizing pornography and it's relationship to sexual callousness, violence toward women, and sexual conservatism. The dialogue view and the contingency view of interactivity were used as the theoretical frameworks for the study. The dialogue view holds that interactivity creates a feeling of dialogue or mutual discourse between sender and receiver. The contingency view however holds that the initial exchange between the original media source and the receiver affects all later exchanges. Neither the dialogue nor the contingency views of interactivity had been applied to Internet pornography.
\n\n\tH1: Exposure to dehumanizing pornography should lead to more sexual callousness, more acceptance of violence towards women, and less sexual conservatism than will exposure to erotica pornography.
\n\n\tH2: Subject reaction to the medium interactivity pornographic websites will be stronger than reactions to the low and high interactivity pornographic websites.
\n\n\tH3a: Exposure to highly interactive dehumanizing pornography, as compared with low and medium interactivity, should increase the negative effect and lead to more sexual callousness, more acceptance of violence toward women, and less sexual conservatism.
\n\n\tH3b: Exposure to highly interactive erotica pornography, as compared with low and medium interactivity, should increase the positive effect and lead to less sexual callousness, less acceptance of violence toward women, and more sexual conservatism.
\n\n\tThe study employed a fully crossed 3(low vs. medium vs. high interactivity) X 2(erotica vs. dehumanizing pornography) factorial between-participants design. Ninety-five participants were randomly assigned to one of six experimental conditions. Participants in all conditions surfed through a series of pornographic, political, and on-line shopping websites. They were told that three websites had been randomly pulled from the Internet to represent many different types of Internet content. After exposure to the websites, subjects completed a questionnaire dealing with their opinions of each website as well as their own sex role satisfaction, their level of sexual callousness toward women, the level of sexual conservatism, and their level of acceptance of violence toward women.
\n\n\tH1: Partially supported. Participants exposed to dehumanizing pornography reported as being less sexually conservative than the participants exposed to erotica pornography. However, varying the depiction of pornographic portrayals alone did not result in participants' perceptions regarding sexual callousness or acceptance of violence toward women.
\n\n\tH2: Supported. Participants in the medium interactivity pornographic websites had significantly stronger reactions than participants in the low and high interactivity pornographic websites.
\n\n\tH3a: Partially supported. Participants exposed to highly interactive dehumanizing pornography had significantly more acceptance of violence towards women than participants in the low and medium interactive dehumanizing pornographic websites.
\n\n\tH3b: Partially supported. Participants in the highly interactive erotica pornography rated the positive effects of erotica pornography and less acceptance of violence toward women as significantly higher than the participants in the low and medium interactive erotica pornographic websites.
\n\n\tFindings in this study would seem to support prior research into the effects of traditional pornography. Interactivity, acting as a formal feature served to boost the hedonic valence of both types of pornography. Pornographic images that dehumanize women led to more negative attitudes toward women, but this effect is often times contingent upon the level of interactivity surrounding the displayed content. After exposure to dehumanizing images, all subjects adopted more liberal beliefs concerning sex, but greater interaction caused them also to foster more of a male-oriented satisfaction with their sex role.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31067" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-07T06:56:04-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33109, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "630b5e64-6941-4ff1-800b-921c5314b3c0", "siteSettingsId": 33109, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21053, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Impact of internet images: Impression-formation effects of university web site images", "slug": "impact-of-internet-images-impression-formation-effects-of-university-web-si", "uri": "medialab/research-article/impact-of-internet-images-impression-formation-effects-of-university-web-si", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:53-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:09:36-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33109, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/impact-of-internet-images-impression-formation-effects-of-university-web-si", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/impact-of-internet-images-impression-formation-effects-of-university-web-si", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40782": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "James F. Gyure & Srividya Ramasubramanian", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40783": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Nasreen M. Murs", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tRamasubramanian, S., Gyure, J.F., & Mursi, N.M. (2001, November). Impact of internet images: Impression-formation effects of university Web site images. Paper presented to Visual Communication Division at the 87th annual conference of the National Communication Association (NCA), Atlanta, GA.
\n\n\tHigh school students are increasingly using the Web as the primary medium for forming impressions about universities that they have not visited. Research suggests that visual representations play a key role in creating an experiential sense of place determining the inclination to visit and duration of stay. Recent studies suggest that images of campus landscaping and architecture play a crucial role in student evaluations. The present experimental study focuses on the types of impressions formed by college-bound students in response to architectural representation and contextual greenery represented in Web site images of campuses. Accordingly, we asked the following research questions:
\n\n\tRQ1: For college-bound high school juniors, controlling for Web site content, what is the relationship between the type of architectural representation and the nature of impressions formed about the university?
\n\n\tRQ2: For college-bound high school juniors, controlling for Web site content, what is the relationship between the presence/absence of contextual greenery and the nature of impressions formed about the university?
\n\n\tForty-four college-bound high school volunteered to participate in a 2 X 2 between-participants, factorial experiment in their school computer lab. They were randomly assigned to one of four conditions. Each condition was exposed to the front pages of two Web sites of fictitious universities (Haisoll and Reston), modeled after typical university Web sites and constructed solely for this experiment. The web sites were identical in content except for their visuals. The independent variables were Architectural Representation and Contextual Greenery. 'Architectural Representation,' was operationalized as the compliance or defiance of traditional (Greek and Roman) architectural styles as represented in a single building (see Trachtenberg & Hyman 1986). This variable took on two values: 'traditional' and 'non-traditional.'
\n\n\t'Contextual Greenery,' was operationalized as greenery (lawns and trees) and sky. This took on two values: 'With context' (presence of contextual greenery) and 'Without context' (absence of contextual greenery).
\n\n\tThe dependent variable, Impression Formation, was operationalized in terms of two variables, Attitudes Towards the University and Behavioral Intent, and measured via responses to likert-type scales in the questionnaire.
\n\n\tPerceived academic prestige: Those in the 'With context' condition were more likely to perceive the university as academically prestigious than those in the 'Without Context' condition. Those in the 'traditional' condition rated the universities significantly higher on 'academic prestige' than those in the 'non-traditional condition.'
\n\n\tPerceived athletic reputation: Athletic reputation of the university was likely to be enhanced by the presence of context as compared to the absence of context.
\n\n\tPerceived 'invitingness': In the non-traditional condition, the perceived invitingness was more pronounced when viewed in context rather than in isolation, while in the traditional condition, the presence of context slightly decreased the perception of 'invitingness.'
\n\n\tKey: \"T\" refers to traditional representation, \"NT\" refers to non-traditional representation, \"W\" refers to presence of context, \"WO\" refers to absence of context.
\n\n\tStudents formed strong impression of academic quality in response to traditional representations, suggesting that they associate quality with what they think they know, rather than with the unusual or unfamiliar. This explanation is reinforced by the students' perception of the traditional architecture as being more Inviting than modern architecture.
\n\n\tThe findings reinforce what visual communicators argue that visuals can convey a powerful message about an institution and its mission. More importantly, results suggest that college-bound students do form impressions about the more abstract qualities of an institution on the basis of visual images of its physical identity. We believe the findings also have very practical implications for Web site design, higher education administration and campus planning to make decisions about what types of architectural visual representations to showcase in order to create favorable impressions amongst its target group.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31067" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-07T06:53:39-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33103, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "c3e7ca21-8cf9-4e32-befc-190253053b2c", "siteSettingsId": 33103, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21051, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Computer mediated learning: A comparative analysis of paper and computer and levels of interaction", "slug": "computer-mediated-learning-a-comparative-analysis-of-paper-and-computer-and", "uri": "medialab/research-article/computer-mediated-learning-a-comparative-analysis-of-paper-and-computer-and", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:52-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:09:34-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33103, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/computer-mediated-learning-a-comparative-analysis-of-paper-and-computer-and", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/computer-mediated-learning-a-comparative-analysis-of-paper-and-computer-and", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40772": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Smita Chaturvedi", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40773": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Ndidi Moses", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tChaturvedi, S., & Moses, N. (2001, November). Computer mediated learning: A comparative analysis of paper and computer and levels of interaction . Paper presented to the 87th annual conference of the National Communication Association (NCA), Atlanta, GA.
\n\n\tRecent advances in educational technology are facilitating a shift from an industrial mass production model of distance education to personalized and individualized instruction with the potential of accommodating a variety of learning styles. The nature and mode of delivery has moved beyond mail delivered course packages, and now includes televised instruction, computer mediated lessons, computer assisted learning, computer conferencing and web based instruction. Our research is a modest attempt to answering the question of relationship between modes of delivery (print vs. Computer) and degrees of interaction (interaction vs. no interaction) on students' motivation levels, comprehension and perceptions of learning. Exploiting our technological capabilities to improve access to and opportunities for learning involves many players: educational practitioners and institutions, cognitive and social scientists, technology developers and providers, and policy makers. In order to fully address the issue of formulating the most comprehensive package for delivering distance education, we wanted to see if the combinations of modes of delivery and degrees of interaction produce any significant findings. Our research question was designed in part to fill the gap and provide a conclusive answer to the question:
\n\n\tFor College students, controlling for lesson content, graphics, subject matter and font size, what is the relationship between mode of instruction and degrees of interaction and perception of lesson content and comprehension?
\n\n\tForty-seven participants took part in a between participants experiment, where they were exposed to one of the four versions of a lesson in nutrition, each with identical textual content but differing in the mode of delivery and levels of interaction. The four experimental conditions were: paper lesson with no interaction, paper lesson with interaction, computer lesson with no interaction, computer lesson with interaction. After exposure, they filled out a paper-and-pencil questionnaire eliciting their perceptions of the source, perception of learning, their motivational level, and their comprehension of the subject matter.
\n\n\tParticipants who received the computer lesson scored significantly higher than those who received the paper lesson.
\n\n\tParticipants who received the non-interactive version rated the lesson significantly more relevant than the participants who received the interactive version.
\n\n\tParticipants who received the interactive version rated the lesson significantly less exciting than those who received the non interactive version.
\n\n\tEnrollment likelihood did not reveal significance. However, one item in the index did. For the item Improbable/Probable, there was a significant main effect found for mode of instruction, such that participants who received the computer-based lesson rated the lesson significantly higher that those who received the paper based version of the lesson.
\n\n\tBased on the results of this study it is apparent that distance education may be the most effective when lessons are provided on line, students not only had higher comprehension scores for computer based lessons, but they also were more motivated and more likely to enroll in a similar course. Moreover, the use of computers in classrooms might aid in increasing student's comprehension, and interest in the subject matter. Additionally, the results of this study suggested that participants found the interactive versions of the lessons, less relevant, less exciting but more useful. It is possible that while participants recognized the utility of interactive tools, they may have also needed time to grasp the information provided in the lesson plan without being provided with additional information. The introduction of interactive tools, too early in the lesson may distract the student from the lesson at hand, and make participants feel as if the lesson by itself is inadequate and unable to provide them with all the information they need.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31067" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-07T06:51:25-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33093, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "8e35e9cf-91a7-43af-b782-555d22acd983", "siteSettingsId": 33093, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21049, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The effects of computer usage on social isolation", "slug": "the-effects-of-computer-usage-on-social-isolation", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-effects-of-computer-usage-on-social-isolation", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:50-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:09:31-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33093, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-effects-of-computer-usage-on-social-isolation", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-effects-of-computer-usage-on-social-isolation", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40754": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Brittane Blose", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40757": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Joanna Breitstein", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40758": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Abigail Fairman", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40759": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Craig Lowenstein", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThe introduction of online applications has enabled us to keep in touch with people in far-off places, have new research and information readily available at our fingertips, and transform the world into a global village. While the informational aspects of the computer are fairly well-documented, the consequences of the computer on an individual's social well-being are less widely understood, even as computers are changing the dynamics of human interaction and relationships. Researchers claim that the computer, or more specifically, the internet, helps unite people who share a common interest and create a community. Other researchers, however, maintain that social isolation may occur as a result of less face-to-face communication. This study seeks to add further information to this body of research by examining the relationship between amount of time spent on the computer and social isolation.
\n\n\tBased on prior research, it was hypothesized that the amount of time spent on the computer would be positively correlated to the degree of social isolation.
\n\n\tA total of one hundred and thirty two respondents were selected using a systematic random sample. Each respondent was given a survey which had items pertaining to amount and type of computer usage, as well as questions related to social isolation and some demographics.
\n\n\tThe dependent measure of social isolation was divided into four factors called 'Outgoing,' 'Non-Confident,' 'Trust in Friends/Human Nature' and 'Busy Body.'
\n\n\tThe results do not support the hypothesis. In other words, there is no relationship between computer use and social isolation.
\n\n\tHowever, there were some other interesting correlational findings. Outgoing respondents tended to send e-mail more frequently than less outgoing respondents. Also, those respondents who spend a lot of time on the computer tend to seek out the opinion of others for advice.
\n\n\tWhile the results indicate the lack of a relationship between amount of time spent on the computer and social isolation, there are other interesting results (as mentioned above) that offer interesting explanations. Since outgoing respondents send e-mail more frequently, it might indicate that they are more social, and even less socially isolated because the computer is now being used as an additional means of communicating socially with others.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31067" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-07T06:49:08-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33081, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "6a4971d2-65dd-4be6-b683-363f1d9b34c3", "siteSettingsId": 33081, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21047, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The effects of internet use on students' gpa", "slug": "the-effects-of-internet-use-on-students-gpa", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-effects-of-internet-use-on-students-gpa", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:48-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:09:28-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33081, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-effects-of-internet-use-on-students-gpa", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-effects-of-internet-use-on-students-gpa", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40735": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Pauline Ferzetti", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40736": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Tim Jaap", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40738": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Teckla King", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40740": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Erin Tench", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40741": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jen L.Thomas", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThe advent of the internet has led to the rapid growth of the variety - and amount - of information that is now available. While online technology has benefited a great number of people, it is also felt that the internet might replace other activities that could be more beneficial or productive. In other words, it could serve as a distractor, lending credence to the statement that \"time spent doing one thing cannot be spent doing another.\" This study specifically examines the amount of internet usage and its effects on college students' GPAs.
\n\n\tBased on Distraction theory, it was hypothesized that the amount of time spent on the internet would be negatively related to a student's GPA.
\n\n\tOne hundred and twenty respondents were selected using a systematic random sample. Each respondent was given a survey which had items pertaining to amount and type of internet usage, as well as questions related to academic performance (GPA) and some demographics.
\n\n\tAn analysis of the data indicate that there is no correlation between the independent and dependent variables. Specifically, amount of time spent on the internet does not have any effect on GPA. Since the internet probably combines characteristics of both television and newspapers, the correlation between amount of time spent on television and newspapers and GPA were also examined. The results indicate that the more time spent watching television, the lower the GPA. However, increased newspaper usage resulted in a higher GPA.
\n\n\tWhile the results indicate the lack of a relationship between overall internet usage and GPAs, it is interesting to note that some of the traditional media such as print and television (whose properties are characteristic of the internet as well) have a significant effect on academic performance. This is of enormous educational significance, particularly to practitioners of online learning methods. It suggests that the more TV-like aspect of this new medium might hinder academic performance whereas the more newspaper-like attributes of the internet may indeed serve to enhance college students' GPA.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31067" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-07T06:46:08-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33071, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "1e4cca0e-4a30-43e5-a35d-528ac739e107", "siteSettingsId": 33071, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21045, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Internet usage and depression", "slug": "internet-usage-and-depression", "uri": "medialab/research-article/internet-usage-and-depression", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:47-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:09:25-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33071, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/internet-usage-and-depression", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/internet-usage-and-depression", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40719": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "David Aloision", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40721": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Derek Finger", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40723": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Wendy Nimerfroh", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40724": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Renee Ramsey", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThe recent explosion of personal computers and the active emergence of the internet raise important questions of psychological impact. The persuasiveness of the internet and its impact on social involvement has led to an ongoing debate about the internet contributing to a decline in social relationships, which in turn leads to an increase in loneliness and overall depression. However, other researchers believe that the internet improves social participation and social functions. This study examines whether internet use has any effect on depression.
\n\n\tBased on prior research, it was hypothesized that there would be a positive correlation between internet usage and overall depression. Further, it was hypothesized that increased amount of time spent on the internet would result in lesser social skills and relationships.
\n\n\tOne hundred and sixteen respondents were selected using a convenience sample. Each respondent was given a survey which had items pertaining to internet usage and depression measures, as well as some demographic questions.
\n\n\tThe responses pertaining to depression were added to form an 'Overall Depression Scale.' The results indicate a positive correlation between average hours spent on the internet per week and overall depression, such that spending more time on the internet resulted in greater levels of depression. It was also seen that with increased amount of time spent on the internet, the amount of time spent meeting people physically goes down. Further, the amount of time spent talking to strangers on the internet resulted in increased depression.
\n\n\tThe data lend support to the notion that using the internet is associated with lesser social ties in the real world. It can also be that people with a higher depression rating seek out the internet as a medium to meet and talk to strangers online. As the amount of time spent on the internet goes up, so does the amount of time spent talking with strangers on the internet. This may imply that those people who are highly depressed seek out social ties on the internet.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31067" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-07T06:43:30-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33061, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "e7f65fa3-ca50-4ed1-a6de-06177a05114b", "siteSettingsId": 33061, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21043, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Internet usage and perceptions of racism", "slug": "internet-usage-and-perceptions-of-racism", "uri": "medialab/research-article/internet-usage-and-perceptions-of-racism", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:45-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:09:22-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33061, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/internet-usage-and-perceptions-of-racism", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/internet-usage-and-perceptions-of-racism", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40704": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Nicole Gardner", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40705": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Cindy del Rosario", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40706": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Michelle Stine", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40707": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Brian Wadiak", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThe proliferation of websites put up by hate groups and the widespread prevalence of racism and violence on television and websites may lead to negatively skewed perceptions of reality. For example, people who watch excessive television and are frequent internet users may estimate that there are more hate groups than there really are, or that the real world is much more violent than it actually is. This study examines perceptions of reality based on the amount of television watched as well as internet usage.
\n\n\tCultivation theory suggests that the amount of medium (in this case television and the internet) shapes a person's perceptions and beliefs of reality. It does so through repeated exposure. Further, there are differences between heavy and light television viewers. Based on cultivation theory, it was hypothesized that heavy users (compared to light users) would overestimate the prevalence of hate and racism in the world.
\n\n\tOne-hundred respondents were selected using a convenience sample. Each respondent was given a survey which had items pertaining to media usage (particularly television and the internet), as well as questions pertaining to racist stereotypes.
\n\n\tFour scaled questions about perceptions of racism were grouped to form a 'Perceived Racism' index. In general, the results indicate that those respondents who spend more time surfing the web are more likely to perceive a higher estimate of racism. Also, the amount of time spent using the computer for entertainment purposes (as opposed to school/work/e-mail etc.) was positively correlated to perceived racism.
\n\n\tThe amount of time a person spends surfing the web does seem to affect his/her perceptions of racism. Respondents who spent more time surfing the web were more likely to report a higher number of active hate groups. It is likely that those who spend more time web surfing are more likely to be in contact with websites not only of various hate groups, but also organizations such as the Southern Povery Law Center which monitor activities of hate groups.This exposure might induce higher estimates of perceived racism and hate groups than actually exist.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-04-07T06:40:35-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 39863, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "83bf2d70-4c8b-4053-986b-721aebfb95a0", "siteSettingsId": 39863, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21715, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Does internet displace traditional media usage?", "slug": "does-internet-displace-traditional-media-usage1", "uri": "medialab/research-article/does-internet-displace-traditional-media-usage1", "dateCreated": "2021-11-03T10:06:06-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:09:19-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 39863, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/does-internet-displace-traditional-media-usage1", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/does-internet-displace-traditional-media-usage1", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [], "studentResearchers": { "40689": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Ryan Misuro", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40690": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Chris Stec", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40691": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jennifer A.Thomas", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40693": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "William F. Yurasko", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThe advent of new technology has contributed to increasing changes in consumers' media usage and preferences. Traditional media may lose their potency and be overtaken by newer media. For example, television assumed the mantle of most dominant medium from radio. This is in keeping with displacement theory which predicts that one medium will be overtaken, or displaced, by another medium. With the ubiquitous rise of the internet, it is felt that it might displace other traditional media, particularly television.
\n\n\tBased on displacement theory, it is hypothesized that the internet will displace other traditional media, particularly television.
\n\n\tA total of one hundred and twenty respondents were selected from a systematic random sample. Each respondent was given a survey which had items pertaining to usage and availability of different media, including the internet and television.
\n\n\tSince the main focus of this study was to examine the potential displacement effects that the internet has on television, the variable \"Net Hours\" (which represented the total number of hours each individual subject spent on the internet over one week) was plotted against another variable \"TV Hours\" (which represented the total hours each subject spent watching television). Contrary to the hypothesis, the results indicate a positive correlation between these two variables, indicating that the more time a person spent on the internet, the more likely he/she was to watch television. Analysis of other data indicate that respondents tend not to regard the internet as an exclusive medium but rather as another choice to television. It was also seen that those respondents who have a strong affinity towards television are less likely to have that media displaced in their lives by the internet.
\n\n\tThough the hypothesis was not supported, the correlations indicate that with increasing television viewing, there is also an increase in internet usage. This might be because loneliness or depression may lead to both higher television viewing as well as higher internet usage. It might also be that people with lesser social skills may prefer to spend more time with television and the internet. That is to say, individual or environmental factors unrelated to media may play a role in determining usage of both media instead of distinguishing between them.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31067" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-29T22:17:22-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33053, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "603cfe13-087b-4962-88d4-84799be5d8b3", "siteSettingsId": 33053, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21041, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The effects of personality on internet dependency", "slug": "the-effects-of-personality-on-internet-dependency", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-effects-of-personality-on-internet-dependency", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:43-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:09:17-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33053, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-effects-of-personality-on-internet-dependency", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-effects-of-personality-on-internet-dependency", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40679": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jenny Gerrard", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40680": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Laura Glickstein", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40681": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Erin Kudrec", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThe desirability of new online social networking can have different appeal to those of different personality types. Personalities influence people’s motives for the use of networks online to socially interact. Two major camps of thought have developed; one argues that a user’s personality will translate to the online world without any changes and the other theory argues that one’s personality will change and become more social when engaging in online communication.
\n\n\tRQ: For college students, controlling for gender, what is the relationship between personality and internet use?
\n\tH1: People who are more open to experience are less internet dependent.
\n\tH2: People who are more conscientious are less internet dependent.
\n\tH3: People who are more extraverted are less internet dependent.
\n\tH4: People who are more agreeable are less internet dependent.
\n\tH5: People who are more neurotic are more internet dependent.
\n\tStudy respondents consisted of 230 Undergraduate Penn State Students (175 female and 55 male). Respondents ranged in ages from 18-24 years, and the median age was 21. The survey contained an official IRB consent form and two established surveys which contained 41 personality questions on a 5-point Likert scale and 20 internet addiction questions on a 10-point Likert scale. In addition to the established surveys six open-ended questions asked respondents to specify the number of minutes they spend daily on social networking sites and the last section of the survey concluded with an extra credit page that asked for course name and student email address. Various questions in each survey were schmushed based on a Cronbach’s alpha greater than .6.
\n\n\tAll of our hypotheses were supported (p<.05) based on five simple linear regressions to test the five personality variables. Those who are higher on openness to experience, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and extraversion are less dependent on the Internet, while those who are high on neuroticism are more dependent on the Internet (see Figures 1-5). We ran a multiple regression test to look closer at our findings. This test revealed that neuroticism is the strongest predictor of Internet dependency.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/personality01.jpg\")
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/personality02.jpg\")
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/personality03.jpg\")
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/personality04.jpg\")
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/personality05.jpg\")
\n\tThere were several internal and external limitations associated with our research, some of which include: sample demographics, length of survey, disproportionate gender sample, the use of established surveys, and self-reporting bias. Based on studies conducted by Kraut and Caplan, we conclude our research findings are more aligned with the work of Caplan.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31067" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-29T22:13:40-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33043, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "b7786787-d08b-452c-b33a-bbc5615bdb85", "siteSettingsId": 33043, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21039, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Does internet displace traditional media usage?", "slug": "does-internet-displace-traditional-media-usage", "uri": "medialab/research-article/does-internet-displace-traditional-media-usage", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:41-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:09:14-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33043, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/does-internet-displace-traditional-media-usage", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/does-internet-displace-traditional-media-usage", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [], "studentResearchers": { "40663": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Ryan Misuro", "degreeCandidacy": null } }, "40664": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Chris Stec", "degreeCandidacy": null } }, "40665": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jennifer A.Thomas", "degreeCandidacy": null } }, "40667": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "William F. Yurasko", "degreeCandidacy": null } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThe advent of new technology has contributed to increasing changes in consumers' media usage and preferences. Traditional media may lose their potency and be overtaken by newer media. For example, television assumed the mantle of most dominant medium from radio. This is in keeping with displacement theory which predicts that one medium will be overtaken, or displaced, by another medium. With the ubiquitous rise of the internet, it is felt that it might displace other traditional media, particularly television.
\n\n\tBased on displacement theory, it is hypothesized that the internet will displace other traditional media, particularly television.
\n\n\tA total of one hundred and twenty respondents were selected from a systematic random sample. Each respondent was given a survey which had items pertaining to usage and availability of different media, including the internet and television.
\n\n\tSince the main focus of this study was to examine the potential displacement effects that the internet has on television, the variable \"Net Hours\" (which represented the total number of hours each individual subject spent on the internet over one week) was plotted against another variable \"TV Hours\" (which represented the total hours each subject spent watching television). Contrary to the hypothesis, the results indicate a positive correlation between these two variables, indicating that the more time a person spent on the internet, the more likely he/she was to watch television. Analysis of other data indicate that respondents tend not to regard the internet as an exclusive medium but rather as another choice to television. It was also seen that those respondents who have a strong affinity towards television are less likely to have that media displaced in their lives by the internet.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/displacement.jpg\")
\n\tThough the hypothesis was not supported, the correlations indicate that with increasing television viewing, there is also an increase in internet usage. This might be because loneliness or depression may lead to both higher television viewing as well as higher internet usage. It might also be that people with lesser social skills may prefer to spend more time with television and the internet. That is to say, individual or environmental factors unrelated to media may play a role in determining usage of both media instead of distinguishing between them.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31067" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-28T19:09:07-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33037, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "c5bcd06c-3f9e-4c58-8f87-cc753490d7d4", "siteSettingsId": 33037, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21037, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Serious or fun--how should we portray programming to laypersons?", "slug": "serious-or-fun-how-should-we-portray-programming-to-laypersons", "uri": "medialab/research-article/serious-or-fun-how-should-we-portray-programming-to-laypersons", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:40-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:09:13-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33037, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/serious-or-fun-how-should-we-portray-programming-to-laypersons", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/serious-or-fun-how-should-we-portray-programming-to-laypersons", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [], "studentResearchers": { "40653": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Chulakorn Aritajati", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "40655": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Joslenne Pena", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tComputer science lacks in interest and diversity, there are several reasons why individuals choose not to study or pursue computer science. We were motivated to investigate further reasons as to why individuals have certain attitudes toward computer science. Through an online experiment using Amazon Mechanical Turk, we administered a randomized short video and survey to elicit their attitudes toward computer science.
\n\n\tFor the general population, what is the relationship between fun and serious computer science video clips and their attitudes toward computer science?
\n\tH1: Participants who watched the fun clip will have more self-concept than participant who watched the serious clip.
\n\tH2: Participants who watched the fun clip will have more learning computer science than participant who watched the serious clip.
\n\tH3: Participants who watched the fun clip will have more career identity than participant who watched the serious clip.
\n\tH4: Participants who watched the fun clip will have more important of computer science than participant who watched the serious clip.
\n\tH5: Participants who watched the fun clip will have more self-efficacy than participant who watched the serious clip.
\n\tH6: Participants who watched the fun clip and have large technology support network will have more self-concept than participant who watched the serious clip and have small technology support network.
\n\tParticipants were recruited through Amazon Mechanical Turk, we provided $0.80 cents per completed task (our survey). Our chosen stimuli were two videos on the same concept both hosted on Youtube and similar length of duration. We randomly assigned videos and participants partook in our survey through Turk and developed on Qualtrics.
\n\n\tThe serious video influenced participants to realize the importance of computer science and have more positive attitude toward this field. People who had large technology support networks had more positive views on computer science after they watched the serious video than the fun video, but people who had small technology support networks had opposite behavior. However, both videos did not have different effects on learning computer science, pursuing a computer-related career, and self-efficacy on programming.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/1_2.png\")
\n\tAlthough, the fun video is interactive, the serious video induces a more positive attitude towards computer science. This was not consistent with what we originally hypothesized, that fun would increase the attitudes of these individuals. Further, there are other factors involved with disinterest, such as self-efficacy, technology support network, learning and understanding a concept. If an individual has the larger support network, the serious video will elicit a more positive response of attitude, whereas, the opposite is true for fun. These results speak to a larger volume of ideas regarding the environments of individuals and the varying factors that may affect their attitudes.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31067" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-28T19:07:04-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33031, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "064e9255-c2f8-44a1-893c-bef72ef9b639", "siteSettingsId": 33031, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21035, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Where do millennials go for information?: the role of internet self-efficacy in information retrieva", "slug": "where-do-millennials-go-for-information-the-role-of-internet-self-efficacy", "uri": "medialab/research-article/where-do-millennials-go-for-information-the-role-of-internet-self-efficacy", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:39-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:09:11-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33031, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/where-do-millennials-go-for-information-the-role-of-internet-self-efficacy", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/where-do-millennials-go-for-information-the-role-of-internet-self-efficacy", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [], "studentResearchers": { "40644": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jenna Grzeslo", "degreeCandidacy": null } }, "40645": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Na Sun", "degreeCandidacy": null } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThe digital divide is the gap between those who have access to information communication technologies and those who do not. In many ways, this divide is diminishing in developed countries, such as the United States. As a result, the focus of research has shifted to the second level digital divide. The second level digital divide, which is a production gap between content producers and content consumers, is caused by gaps in online efficacy and online skills. As a complex construct, Internet efficacy has five components search self-efficacy, communication self-efficacy, differentiation self-efficacy, organization self-efficacy, and reactive/generative self-efficacy. These five components and their role in information retrieval are of interest to this study.
\n\n\tA general research question for this study states, “What role does Internet self-efficacy play in information seeking behavior?” In particular, we are interested in how Internet self-efficacy affects information seeking behaviors across distinct types of information channels and sources.
\n\n\tRQ: For undergraduate students at a division one research university, controlling for age, gender, and academic major, what is the relationship between one’s level of Internet self-efficacy and ones level of information seeking?
\n\tH1: Among college students, there is a direct relationship between level of Internet self-efficacy and level of information seeking.
\n\tH2: Power usage and Internet self-efficacy will be positively related.
\n\tH3: Greater levels of Internet use frequency will lead to greater levels of Internet self-efficacy.
\n\tUsing a convenient sample of undergraduate students (n=161), we conducted a survey using Qualtrics Survey Software, which was distributed to participants via email.
\n\n\tAll three hypotheses were supported, but our findings further unpacked the relationship between the five types of Internet self-efficacy and what information sources each one positively predicts. This study found that Google is the most frequently used information source for everyday life research while librarians are the least frequently used information source. The most statistically significant predictor of Google usage is search self-efficacy (b = 0.34, p<.0001). Individuals with higher levels of reactive/generative self-efficacy are more likely to use information sources such as librarians, library shelves, and instructors. Kim and Glassman (2013) hold that this is the most complex type of ISE because it involves information creation in addition to information gathering.
\n\n\tOur findings illustrate the relationship between reactive/generative self-efficacy and the use of more complex information sources. If we are to motivate information seekers to use these traditional and highly regarded information sources more frequently we need to strengthen their reactive/generative self-efficacy by encouraging them to become not only consumers but also prosumers of information. By closing the production gap between information producers and consumers, we will in part be bridging the second level digital divide.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31067" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-28T03:01:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33027, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "ac3f29b3-d6af-4c8c-b8ec-f232748577ec", "siteSettingsId": 33027, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21033, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Emotional responses to web advertising:", "slug": "emotional-responses-to-web-advertising", "uri": "medialab/research-article/emotional-responses-to-web-advertising", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:38-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:49:35-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33027, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/emotional-responses-to-web-advertising", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/emotional-responses-to-web-advertising", "subtitle": "The effects of animation, position, and product involvement", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [], "studentResearchers": { "40639": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Nokon Heo", "degreeCandidacy": null } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tFOR A COMPLETE REPORT OF THIS RESEARCH, SEE:
\n\tHeo, N., & Sundar, S. S. (2000, August). Emotional responses to web advertising: The effects of animation, position, and product involvement on physiological arousal. Paper presented to the Advertising Division at the annual conference of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC) Phoenix, AZ.
\n\tINTRODUCTION
\n\tDespite the Internet's increasing popularity and potential as an advertising medium, advertisers are uncertain about the effectiveness of Web advertising in gaining user attention. It is generally known that only very few online users actually click the banner ads. Today's Web advertisers are increasingly using animation in their banner ads to attract viewers' attention. And typically, those banner ads are scattered all parts of the Web page, which raises a concern for ad clutter. In this study, we examined whether the new medium can actually provide a vehicle for effective commercial communication. More specifically, this study investigated psychological effects of ad animation, ad position, and product involvement within the context of Web advertising.
\n\tHYPOTHESES
\n\tH1: Animated ads will elicit greater skin conductance response (SCR) than static ads.
\n\tH2: Ads positioned near the top of the page will elicit greater skin conductance response (SCR) than those near the end of the page.
\n\n\tH3: Animated ads will elicit greater skin conductance response (SCR) when they are positioned near the top of the page than animated ads positioned near the bottom of the page.
\n\n\tH4: Animated ads will elicit greater skin conductance response (SCR) than static ads if they feature a low involvement product compared to a high involvement product.
\n\tMETHOD
\n\tFifty-six participants were randomly assigned to one of four orders of a 2 (animation) x 2 (position) x 2 (involvement) within-participants factorial experiment. Eight separate news Web pages were created, each featuring a story and a banner ad. Eight News Stories were selected from existing news Web pages. Of the eight banner ads, four were animated and four were static. Half of the ads were positioned at the top and the other half were positioned at the bottom. Half of the ads featured high involvement products and the other half featured low involvement products. The dependent variable, emotional response, was operationalized by physiological arousal and measured by the magnitude of skin conductance responses (SCRs) as participants viewed the web pages.
\n\tRESULTS
\n\tH1. Supported. Animated ads elicited greater skin conductance response (SCR) than static ads.
\n\tH2. Supported. Ads positioned near the top of the page elicited greater skin conductance response (SCR) than those near the end of the page.
\n\n\tH3. Supported. Animated ads elicited greater skin conductance response (SCR) when they are positioned near the top of the page than animated ads positioned near the bottom of the page.
\n\n\t
\n\n\t
\n\tH4. Supported. Animated ads will elicit greater skin conductance response (SCR) than static ads if they feature a low involvement product compared to a high involvement product.
\n\t
\n\n\tCONCLUSION
\n\tThe findings from the study suggest that ad animation, position, and product involvement are important ad characteristics that can generate strong emotions in viewers. Physiological measure of arousal measured by SCRs can be an alternative measurement tool for advertising effectiveness. Combining certain product and presentation characteristics also seem to serve to promote the persuasiveness of online commercial communications.
\n\tWagner, C. B., & Sundar, S. S. (1998, November). Respiratory responses to television genres. Paper presented to the Intrapersonal Communication and Social Cognition Division at the 84th annual convention of the National Communication Association (NCA), New York City.
\n\n\tDifferent genres of television programs induce different emotions. Each emotion, in turn, has its own characteristic breathing pattern. We laugh at comedic programs, and we sob during those rife with melancholy. We find ourselves breathing hard and heavy during suspenseful shows, and gasping when they horrify us. But, do those moments of suspense and outbreaks of laughter, along with the general moods created by the shows, affect our overall breathing patterns as we watch? Prior research has shown that correlations exist between television programming and emotion, and between emotion and respiratory patterns. However it is not clear whether the effects of television programs are strong enough to elicit specific respiratory reactions. This exploratory study was designed to investigate whether different television program genres elicit distinct respiratory patterns.
\n\n\tTwenty one participants took part in a within-participants experiment. Respiratory volume was recorded while participants viewed five segments of television programming: Situation Comedy, Local News, National News, Rock Video, and Tabloid News.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-03-27_at_7.55.23_PM.png\")
\n\tThe volume data were used to arrive at three dependent measures: minimum volume of respiration, maximum volume of respiration, and mean volume of respiration.
\n\n\tOverall, the findings show that television programming genres elicit distinguishable respiratory patterns. The results for Mean Respiratory Volume show that a significant difference exists between baseline and each of the genres. The minimum and maximum respiratory volume data show that each program genre has a distinct respiratory pattern (see fig. 1).
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Respiratory4.jpg\")
\n\tOverall, the findings show that television program genres elicit distinguishable respiratory patterns. Comparative data amongst genres indicate that no two genres share the same inspiration and expiration relationship with each other. This study, for the first time, demonstrates psychophysiological correlates for television genres. It is likely that these correlates are specific to states of emotion. It is probable that distinct categories of other TV program genres will cause similarly generalizable reactions. The results from this exploratory study suggest that further investigation linking emotion and media consumption through respiratory patterns can yield a better understanding of how various media genres affect viewers.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31065" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-28T02:50:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33015, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "3f1a28e5-d25c-42c4-91fa-320fb769e559", "siteSettingsId": 33015, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21029, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The tease effect of slow downloading:", "slug": "the-tease-effect-of-slow-downloading", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-tease-effect-of-slow-downloading", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:36-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:49:49-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33015, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-tease-effect-of-slow-downloading", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-tease-effect-of-slow-downloading", "subtitle": "Arousal and excitation transfer in online communication", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [], "studentResearchers": { "40617": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sriram Kalyanaraman", "degreeCandidacy": null } }, "40619": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Christine Martin (Bacherlor's Student)", "degreeCandidacy": null } }, "40620": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Carson B Wagner", "degreeCandidacy": null } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tSundar, S. S., Kalyanaraman, S., Martin, C., & Wagner, C. B. (2001, May). Arousal, memory, and impression-formation effects of animation speed in Web advertising. Paper presented to the Information Systems Division at the 51st annual conference of the International Communication Association (ICA), Washington DC.
\n\n\tAnimated advertisements on the Web come in a variety of shapes, sizes and colors. But, they also animate at different speeds. While recent studies have shown animated ads to be more effective than still ads, the role played by the rate of motion in animated ads has been neglected. Given that the primary function of animation is to attract attention, such differences in speed of animation are likely to lead to differential levels of attention to the ads. Researchers have pointed out that speed is an obvious component of an interactive media system, and the degree to which it is realized in an interaction is bound to determine one's psychological experience with the system. An experiment was designed to address this issue by focusing specifically on the physiological and psychological effects of animation speeds in Web ads.
\n\n\tSeveral hypotheses, based on motion-effects, limited-capacity, and vividness-effects theories, were proposed.
\n\n\tH1: Fast animation ads will elicit greater physiological arousal than slow animation ads.
\n\n\tH2a: A slow animation ad will elicit greater physiological arousal when it follows, rather than precedes, a fast animation ad.
\n\n\tH2b: A fast animation ad will elicit greater physiological arousal when it follows, rather than precedes, a slow animation ad.
\n\n\tH3: Ad recognition for fast animation ads will be greater than ad recognition for slow animation ads.
\n\n\tH4: Ad recall for fast animation ads will be lesser than ad recall for slow animation ads.
\n\n\tH5a: A fast animation ad will elicit significantly greater positive impressions of the website when it follows, rather than precedes, a slow animation ad.
\n\n\tH5b: A slow animation ad will elicit significantly greater positive impressions of the website when it precedes, rather than follows, a fast animation ad.
\n\n\tForty-seven participants in a 2 (Animation) X 2 (Sequence) mixed-factorial experiment were exposed to two Web pages, each with a news story surrounded by four online advertisements. The speed (fast, slow) with which the ads were animated served as the within-participants factor, with the fast animation ads averaging 55 animations/flashes per minute and the slow animation ads averaging 21.5 animations/flashes per minute. The sequence (fast, slow; slow, fast) in which participants were exposed to fast and slow animation served as the between-participants factor. The primary dependent variable, physiological arousal, was measured by on-line recordings of skin conductance level (SCL). In addition, after exposure, participants filled out a paper-and-pencil questionnaire eliciting their behavioral intention toward the ads, their evaluation of the Web page as a whole, and their memory for details in the news stories as well as the ads on the pages.
\n\n\tA series of 2x2 mixed ANOVAs was conducted with the two-category animation speed (fast, slow) variable as the within-participants factor and the two-category animation sequence variable (fast-slow, slow-fast) as the between-participants factor.
\n\n\tH1: Supported. When the ANOVA was performed with arousal (as indicated by percentage change in tonic skin conductance from baseline) as the dependent variable, a significant main effect for speed emerged, with study participants showing higher arousal levels while exposed to fast-animation ads than while responding to slow-animation versions of the same ads.
\n\n\tH2a: Not supported. The page with slow animation ads elicited greater arousal when it followed, rather than preceded, the page with fast animation ads, but a post-hoc test failed to show a statistically significant differentiation between these two means.
\n\n\tH2b: Supported. The Web page with fast animation ads elicited significantly greater arousal when it followed, rather than preceded, the page with slow animation ads.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tH3: Not supported. There were no significant differences between the two speeds on the recognition measure.
\n\n\tH4: Not supported. There were no significant differences between the two speeds on the recall measure.
\n\n\tH5a: Not supported. The sequence in which participants were exposed to the page with fast animation ads did not affect their impressions of the page.
\n\n\tH5b: Disconfirmed. Participants found the Web page with slow animation ads more appealing when it was preceded by a page with fast animation ads than when it was not.
\n\n\tIn summary, results from this experiment offer support to the notion that animation speed of Web ads is a psychologically relevant construct. People's responses to animation speed, however, seem to be overwhelmingly moderated by the sequence in which animation speeds are presented to them, as evidenced by the presence of significant interaction between the speed variable and the sequence variable on all analyses producing statistically significant results. Specifically, results confirm the hypothesized ability of fast animation ads to elicit significantly higher arousal then their slow counterparts, particularly when the fast ads are preceded by slow ones. However, on cognitive indicators and impression formation measures, psychological responses to fast animation ads are relatively unaffected by the sequence of presentation of ads with differential speeds whereas responses to slow animation ads, in general, are more positive when they are preceded by fast ads than when they are not.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31065" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-27T21:40:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33011, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "eda73d87-d661-4d9f-871b-e4139caf3f35", "siteSettingsId": 33011, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21027, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Does interacting with media enhance news memory?", "slug": "does-interacting-with-media-enhance-news-memory", "uri": "medialab/research-article/does-interacting-with-media-enhance-news-memory", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:35-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:50:03-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33011, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/does-interacting-with-media-enhance-news-memory", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/does-interacting-with-media-enhance-news-memory", "subtitle": "Automatic vs. controlled processing of interactive news features", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [], "studentResearchers": { "40612": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Corina Constantin", "degreeCandidacy": null } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tSundar, S. S. & Constantin, C. D. (2004, May). Does interacting with media enhance news memory? Automatic vs. controlled processing of interactive news features. Paper presented to the Information Systems division at the 54th annual convention of the International Communication Association (ICA), New Orleans, LA.
\n\n\tInteractive news features are becoming increasingly common in online news. Despite their expense, major news organizations invest in them heavily, especially for narrating major national and international news events. But, how effective is this method of news dissemination? Does it enhance the news reader’s understanding of events? If so, in which ways and for what reasons?
\n\n\tInteracting with online news is quite unlike the passive reception of news via traditional mass media. Interactivity of online content, for example, has been linked to greater user involvement. If this is the case,
\n\n\tH1: Greater the interactivity in a news story, greater the clicking activity by the user.
\n\n\tOn the other hand, interactive news stories are more likely to be processed consciously rather than automatically and also lead to better remembering of news information because of a greater user involvement as users get more involved. Hence,
\n\n\tH2: Greater the clicking activity during reception of a news story, better the recognition memory for story details.
\n\n\tAnother consequence of users’ involvement with interactive news stories reflects the way they perceive the news stories. We expected users’ ratings of perceived interactivity, quality of engagement, and structure to be higher as the news become more interactive, and therefore more involving.
\n\n\tH3: Greater the interactivity in a news story, more positive the user perceptions of interactivity, structure, and quality (of engagement).
\n\n\tAt the same time, any change or anything new in the environment attracts attention for a short period of time. Physiologically, this involuntary attention has been linked to sudden heart-rate decelerations (e.g., Thorson & Lang, 1992) in the immediate aftermath of each change. Therefore,
\n\n\tH4: Greater the clicking activity, greater the deceleration in heart-rate.
\n\n\tH5: Greater the interactivity in a news story, greater the deceleration in heart-rate.
\n\n\tAs interactivity calls for frequent changes in content, users become busy just trying to attend the new information available. Thus, it would be relatively easy for them to recognize parts of the content, but harder to recall it themselves.
\n\n\tH6: Greater the interactivity in a news story, higher the recognition memory for story details.
\n\n\tH7: Greater the interactivity in a news story, lower the recall memory for story details.
\n\n\tFourteen undergraduate students (N = 14) participated in an experiment in exchange for extra credit. All participants were exposed to 11 online news segments selected from the New York Times online archives, and reporting the development of the war in Iraq during March-April 2003. Each online news segments was containing a different number (1, 2, or 3) and different combinations of interactive features (tabs, rollovers, and drags).
\n\n\tThe heart-beat rate was monitored throughout the test period via online ECG recordings. In addition, perceptions of the online news segments were measured by means of a paper-and-pencil questionnaire administered after exposure to each online news segment. Memory for the news segments was measured using a post-experiment paper-and-pencil questionnaire.
\n\n\tH1: Supported. The results show a significant effect of the number of interactive features present in a news segment on the number of clicks, suggesting that people click on more links when the online news segment contains 3 interactive features as opposed to 1 or 2.
\n\n\tH2: Not Supported. We found no relationship between the number of clicks and recognition of first-layer information (i.e., information found of the first page of each news segment); however, there was a significant positive relationship between the number of clicks and the click-based recognition, so that the more participants clicked on different links, the greater their recognition of the deeper-layer information.
\n\n\tH3: Partially Supported. No significant relationship was found between number of interactive features and perceived quality, perceived real-time interactivity or perceived system interactivity. A marginally significant relationship between number of interactive features and perceived structure was found, suggesting that online news segments containing 3 interactive features were perceived as less well-structured than news segments containing 2 or 1.
\n\n\tH4: Not Supported. The analyses conducted to test H4 showed a deceleration in heart-rate with an increase in clicking activity. However, this was more attributable to the effect of news content rather than the clicking activity. We concluded that probably some content was more involving than other, leading to both increased number of links clicked on and decreased heart-rate.
\n\n\tH5: Not Supported. The same results were found while testing for H5; thus, even though a greater number of interactive features present in an online news segment led to a deceleration in heart-rate, we cannot tell if the deceleration is due to the number of interactive features or to the content of the news story.
\n\n\tH6: Supported. There was also a significant effect of the number of interactive features on recognition of first-layer information, such that the content of news segments containing 3 interactive features was significantly better recognized than the content of the news segments containing 1 or 2 interactive features.
\n\n\tOn click-based recognition, the significant differentiation occurred between 1 and 2 interactive features, such that embedded news content of segments with 2 features was better recognized than that of segments with just 1 interactive feature.
\n\n\tH7: Supported. The results revealed a significant effect of number of interactive features on exact recall, such that the content of news segments containing 3 interactive features was recalled significantly more poorly compared to the content of news segments containing 1 or 2 interactive features, even though they seemed to be more memorable.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tAn exploratory analysis was also conducted to see if usage of drags, tabs, and rollovers has different impact on users. The analysis revealed that only drags led to a visible heart-rate deceleration.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/automatic6.jpg\")
\n\tThis study clearly shows that the use of a greater diversity of interactive devices within an online news segment is associated with increased attention (as indicated by heart-rate deceleration), higher memorability of the segment itself and better recognition, but poorer recall of story details. It appears that the introduction of different ways of interacting with the news segment (tabs, rollovers, and drags in this case) triggers automatic allocation of cognitive resources toward encoding news information. Self-report data show that participants perceived a lack of structure in news segments that had multiple devices, leading to lower ratings of perceived coherence and higher ratings of perceived confusion. Therefore, it appears that variety of interactive devices produces orientation as well as cognitive overload similar to that found with multimedia features in online news sites (Sundar, 2000), with resultant memory effects comparable to those of formal features in television stimuli (see Lang, 2000 for an overview).
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31065" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-27T21:35:36-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 33007, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "befc6723-9377-4276-9c10-02f24b2e7060", "siteSettingsId": 33007, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21025, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Source perception and electrodermal activity", "slug": "source-perception-and-electrodermal-activity", "uri": "medialab/research-article/source-perception-and-electrodermal-activity", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:34-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:09:02-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 33007, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/source-perception-and-electrodermal-activity", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/source-perception-and-electrodermal-activity", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [], "studentResearchers": { "40608": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Nokon Heo", "degreeCandidacy": null } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tHeo, N., & Sundar, S. S. (1998, July). Source perception and electrodermal activity. Paper presented to the Communication Theory & Methodology division at the annual conference of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC), Baltimore, MD.
\n\n\tThe psychological effects of communication sources have been extensively studied by scholars in communications, advertising, political communications, and psychology. However, little is known about perception of sources as a function of emotional states of receivers. This study measured the emotional impact of communication sources on television viewers, and examined whether there is a systematic association between receivers' emotional states and their perception of communication sources. The emotional state examined in this study is autonomic arousal, as measured by electrodermal skin conductance responses (SCRs). Theory and research from the Multistage Sequential Model of Face Recognition were used to propose a set of hypotheses linking viewers' arousal as well as their perceptions upon viewing television sources.
\n\n\tH1a: Different sources will elicit different levels of skin conductance responses (SCRs).
\n\n\tH1b: Sources identified with different genres of television programs will elicit different levels of SCRs.
\n\n\tH2: Familiar sources as compared to less familiar sources will elicit greater arousal (SCRs).
\n\n\tH3: The more likable a source, the greater the arousal.
\n\n\tH4: The more attractive a source, the greater the arousal (SCRs).
\n\n\tTwenty-eight participants viewed 22 six-second clips showing facial images of newsmakers, game show hosts, entertainment hosts, and celebrities.
\n\n\tSource perception was measured on a paper-and-pencil questionnaire administered after each source. Electrodermal activity, recorded during exposure to each of the 22 sources, was operationalized as the amplitude of the largest SCR during the six-second periods.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-03-27_at_2.38.55_PM.png\")
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/sourceperception2.jpg\")
\n\tH1a: Supported. Different communication sources elicited different levels of skin conductance responses (SCRs).
\n\n\tH1b: Supported. Different types of sources elicited different levels of skin conductance responses (SCRs).
\n\n\tH2 and H3 : Supported. Sources perceived as familiar and likable elicited greater levels of arousal (SCRs).
\n\n\tH4 : Not supported. Source attractiveness was not associated with skin conductance responses (SCRs).
\n\n\tTheoretically, there appear to be physiological correlates to reception of communication sources. Methodologically, electrodermal activity is indicative of perceptual direction. Practically, the results provide a physiological basis for classifying media sources along such receiver-based criteria as perceived familiarity and likability.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31065" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-27T21:33:35-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32997, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "c75861ef-9ca2-4454-bf85-d30e95bf84b1", "siteSettingsId": 32997, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21023, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The identity and avatar similarity in games: an exploration of flow and enjoyment", "slug": "the-identity-and-avatar-similarity-in-games-an-exploration-of-flow-and-enjo", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-identity-and-avatar-similarity-in-games-an-exploration-of-flow-and-enjo", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:32-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:08:59-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32997, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-identity-and-avatar-similarity-in-games-an-exploration-of-flow-and-enjo", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-identity-and-avatar-similarity-in-games-an-exploration-of-flow-and-enjo", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40597": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Tanner Cooke", "degreeCandidacy": null } }, "40598": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Kayla Booth", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "40599": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Lauren Alwine", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "40600": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Nilima Kumar", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis study incorporated ideas from entertainment, new media, and social desirability research. A general curiosity developed around avatar characters in video games, thus the focus of this study is primarily on such games. An avatar is a digital representation of you and thus begs the question about possible relationships with common variables in new media and entertainment research.
\n\n\tRQ1: what is the relationship between salient identity traits and perceived avatar similarity?
\n\tRQ2: what is the relationship between perceived avatar similarity and the resulting state of flow?
\n\tRQ3: what is the relationship between perceived avatar similarity and users’ enjoyment?
\n\tThis research was conducted with a survey methodology. Participants were recruited via Mechanical Turk, Facebook, and Twitter. After agreeing to the implied consent form participants were able to answer questions regarding an avatar which they played video games with. First were demographic and background questions, then questions about the variables. Self-report and Likert-type scales were used.
\n\n\tOne-way ANOVA for EULA comprehension by presentation version yielded insignificant results (F=0.68, p=0.51, df=2), so H3b and H4b were not supported. However, one of the specific comprehension items revealed a marginally significant difference in favor of the Bernstein-style EULA (F=3.19, p=0.02, df=2). Moreover, there were mediating effects for normalized time spent reading the EULA, self-reported reading of the EULA, and self-reported ease in understanding that favored the Bernstein-style presentation. Lastly, we repeated our analysis with versions 1 & 2 coded as one category. In doing so, we identified interactions between version, normalized time, gender, and power usage.
\n\n\tWe witnessed a series of interactions that painted a picture of a clearly preferable EULA presentation. Participants spent the longest amount of time looking at the Bernstein-style EULA. Those participants who observed the EULA for longer had higher comprehension. Similarly, those who self-reported reading the EULA (most of whom were assigned versions 2 and 3) had higher comprehension. In addition, participants found the Bernstein-style EULA more visually appealing and easier to understand than the alternatives. Finally, participants who viewed the Bernstein-style EULA rated their comprehension of the agreement higher than in the other conditions.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31074" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-27T21:30:59-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32993, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "48f57ebf-00b2-4449-8e78-530b68b274bf", "siteSettingsId": 32993, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21021, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "My desired self, avatar: the impact of avatar creation on persuasion", "slug": "my-desired-self-avatar-the-impact-of-avatar-creation-on-persuasion", "uri": "medialab/research-article/my-desired-self-avatar-the-impact-of-avatar-creation-on-persuasion", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:31-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:08:58-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32993, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/my-desired-self-avatar-the-impact-of-avatar-creation-on-persuasion", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/my-desired-self-avatar-the-impact-of-avatar-creation-on-persuasion", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [], "studentResearchers": { "40593": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Youjeong Kim", "degreeCandidacy": null } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tYoujeong Kim & S. Shyam Sundar (2008, August). My Desired Self, Avatar: The Impact of Avatar Creation on Persuasion. Poster to be presented to the Communication Technology Division of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC) at the 91st annual convention in Chicago, IL.
\n\n\tIn terms of power of anonymity, avatars motivate users to activate one of their inner selves. Through avatars, users present themselves either in their actual forms that are present in the public or in ideal forms that have not been shown in public but are what the users desire to be. Throughout the study, we attempt to explicate the sense of self that could be expressed through avatar creation and its persuasive role in influencing avatar users’ perceptions and attitudes.
\n\n\tIt is true that everybody has a desire to be attractive and credible, although the degree might be different depending on age and gender. However, attractiveness and credibility are self-judgmental terms that are perceived differently by individuals. Therefore, the perception of one’s real self determines the distance between one’s actual self and one’s desired self. For example, if person A perceives himself/herself as unattractive, the gap between one’s actual self and one’s desired self might be large, even if everybody else considers person A to be attractive enough. Presumably, therefore, there might be a judgmental difference between the avatar that looks like the person’s actual self and the avatar that looks like the person’s desired self.
\n\n\tH1: There would be a difference in the judgment between the avatars that actually look like the person and the avatars that the person wishes to look like.
\n\n\tH2: When perceiving the avatars created to be like their desired selves, participants will evaluate the avatar as more attractive, credible, confident, cool, capable, and/or persuasive as compared to avatars created to be like their actual selves.
\n\n\tH3: When perceiving the avatars created to be like their desired selves, participants will evaluate the website in which the avatar appeared and the ad and PSA that are embedded in the website more favorably as compared to when they viewed these aspects using avatars created to be like their actual selves.
\n\n\tTo explore the impact of avatars created for representing a user’s self on a website, a within-subjects design was employed. On the manipulated website, twenty-two undergraduate students (9 men and 13 women) participants were directed to create avatars that would represent the user on the website. They were then asked to browse the website in which the created avatar appeared on the left side of the front page. In addition, for the current study, we created two interactive square ads on the right side of the front page: one is a shampoo commercial and the other is a skin cancer PSA. Both ads are identical in size and structure to rule out the effect of ad size or order. After one minute, a pop-up window was scheduled to appear that led participants to the questionnaire.
\n\n\tH1: There was a marginally significant difference in perceiving the self-created avatar. H2: When judging the self-created avatar to be like one’s desired self, users perceived their avatar as being more attractive, credible, confident, cool, capable, and persuasive. Therefore, H2 was supported.
\n\tH3: The results failed to illustrate significant effects of avatar perception in predicting positive attitudes toward the website, ad, and PSA. Therefore, H3 was not supported.
\n\tWe found that there was a marginally significant difference in evaluating the self-customized avatar, particularly judging if the avatar looked like the avatar creator’s actual image or their desired image. Furthermore, the current study revealed that participants were more likely to create an actual avatar that resembled the avatar creator’s real image rather than their desired image for representing themselves in the social networking site (SNS). In addition, this study answered the question as to how the desired avatar was evaluated when users perceived the avatar as a being like their desired selves. Consistent with Langlois et al.’s (2000) study, the desired avatar users perceived their avatar to be attractive, credible, confident, cool, capable, and persuasive.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31074" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-27T21:26:18-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32989, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "d00f0d4c-0f2e-46ca-984e-13f1b733c9d8", "siteSettingsId": 32989, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21019, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Me, myself, and my avatar: the effects of avatar on snw (social networking) users’ attitude toward w", "slug": "me-myself-and-my-avatar-the-effects-of-avatar-on-snw-social-networking", "uri": "medialab/research-article/me-myself-and-my-avatar-the-effects-of-avatar-on-snw-social-networking", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:30-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:08:57-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32989, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/me-myself-and-my-avatar-the-effects-of-avatar-on-snw-social-networking", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/me-myself-and-my-avatar-the-effects-of-avatar-on-snw-social-networking", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [], "studentResearchers": { "40589": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Youjeong Kim", "degreeCandidacy": null } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tYoujeong Kim & S. Shyam Sundar (2008, May). Me, myself, and my Avatar: The effects of avatar on SNW (Social Networking) users’ attitude toward website, ad, and PSA. Paper presented at the 27th annual conference of the Advertising and Consumer Psychology, Philadelphia.
\n\n\tThis study explores both the effects of avatar presence and customization on users’ attitudes toward social networking sites, as well as embedded Ad and PSA, (Public Service Ad). Based on ‘implicit egotism’ that human beings inherently “gravitate toward things that resemble the self” (p. 800), this study predicted that avatar users might have positive attitude toward their ‘self-resembled creature (i.e., avatar)’, and in turn, the positive affect is transferred to the evaluation of website and ads. Furthermore, this study found that avatar successfully increases self-awareness observing virtual self, and highlights the concept of self-preservation when encountering a message regarding a threat to one’s survival. Finally, this study firstly attempted to examine the effects of customization in the context of avatars and psychological mechanisms in order to connect their associations.
\n\n\tH1: Avatar users are more likely to perceive the risk on their physical body-related health than non-avatar users.
\n\n\tH2: Avatar users are more likely to evaluate websites and ads (a commercial ad, and a Public Service Ad) more positively, than non-avatar users.
\n\n\tAvatar customization accompanies the concept of ‘control’ over something (S. S. Sundar & Marathe, 2006) and imbues users with a sense of empowerment (Zimmerman, 1990). Theorizing the customization model, Sundar (2008) emphasized the role of self as a “creator” and “source” for filtering individual needs and connecting technological affordances that customization provides (i.e., interactivity, modality, and navigability) and consequent psychological outcomes (i.e., cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes) (see Figure 1)
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/avatar1_1.JPG\"){kind=avatar}
\n\tFigure 1. Sundar's (2008) Agency Model of Customization
\n\tH3: Participants who customize their avatars are more likely to evaluate the website, ad, and PSA positively than participants who are not allowed to customize their avatars or do not have avatars.
\n\n\tRQ1: What are psychological mediators of avatar customization on users’ attitudes toward website and ads, and body related-health message?
\n\n\tThirty pa rticipants were assigned to one of two experimental conditions in a between-subjects experiment. Before exposure to the stimuli, participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire related to their magazine purchasing behaviors and reading habits. After filling out the questionnaire, half the participants viewed sexually suggestive ads while the other half viewed non-suggestive ads. After exposure, participants were asked to fill out two more questionnaires pertaining to quality and effectiveness of the ads as well as measures of self-esteem and body satisfaction.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/avatar2_1.JPG\"){kind=avatar}
\n\t
\n\n\tFigure 2. Cyworld website and ads which were manipulated for the study.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/avatar3_1.JPG\"){kind=avatar}
\n\tFigure 3. The manipulation of avatar creation
\n\n\tH1: H1 was partly supported. Only perceived risk on skin cancer was significantly associated with the avatar group, F (1, 64) = 4.13, p =.04.
\n\tH2: None of DVs were significant. Therefore, H2 was not supported.
\n\tH3: Three separate ANOVA tests for the effect of customizing avatars also revealed that only the attitude toward the PSA was marginally significant, F (2, 63) = 2.69, p = .07. However, the result’s direction was as opposite as this study hypothesized. Therefore, H3 was not supported.
\n\tRQ1: No significant mediators were found.
\n\tThis study expected that the presence of avatar increases the concern about the user’s physical body and it was supported by data. The result showed that avatar users perceived higher risk on skin cancer than non-avatar users. It means that avatar successfully increases self-awareness observing virtual self, and highlights the concept of self-preservation when encountering a message regarding a threat to one’s survival. This study also found that although avatar which resembles self-appearance generates positive feelings, it is hard to assume that the feeling is able to influence the cognitive evaluation. This study firstly attempted to examine the effects of customization in the context of avatars and found that customizing avatar group showed the lowest favorability toward website. And, interestingly, non-customizing avatar group showed the highest favorability. The reason we believe is due to the frustration of avatar customizers. As we describe in limitation section, avatar customizers might expect that their avatars play a ‘role’ in the site. But, when they find that their avatars do nothing and just appear on the corner while browsing the site, they could be disappointed and it could affect their evaluations about the website.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31074" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-25T23:59:39-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32981, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "c425729b-8492-448f-a653-9898b42f8c5d", "siteSettingsId": 32981, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21017, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The relationship between brand awareness, trust and willingness to reveal private information in eco", "slug": "the-relationship-between-brand-awareness-trust-and-willingness-to-reveal-pr", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-relationship-between-brand-awareness-trust-and-willingness-to-reveal-pr", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:29-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:08:54-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32981, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-relationship-between-brand-awareness-trust-and-willingness-to-reveal-pr", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-relationship-between-brand-awareness-trust-and-willingness-to-reveal-pr", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [], "studentResearchers": { "40578": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Snow Dong", "degreeCandidacy": null } }, "40579": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Kathleen Moore", "degreeCandidacy": null } }, "40580": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Alison Murphy", "degreeCandidacy": null } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tAmid constant and numerous news accounts of fraud and online theft, concerns over personal information privacy and the security of financial information in the eCommerce environment remain dominant today. The commoditization of personal information is as important to online vendors as the products they sell. With consumers becoming increasing aware of the dangers of submitted private information online, they become more vigilant in protesting that information. Vendors could enable technological functions within their sites to secure information but often employ a third-party security verification (3PSV) program that vouches for the online vendor in the form of a seal of approval when the vendor adhered to a standard of security principles.
\n\n\tThis study seeks to explore the effect of both website brand awareness and 3PSV awareness on eCommerce users’ trust in the website from the perspective of heuristic information processing. The study will also evaluate if the users’ trust in the eCommerce website affects the users’ willingness to reveal their private information during their online purchase.
\n\n\tRQ1: For adult eCommerce users, controlling for demographics and previous experience and attitudes, what is the relationship between the degree of website brand awareness, the degree of 3rd party security verification awareness, and the level of trust of the website?
\n\n\tRQ2: For adult eCommerce users, controlling for demographics and previous experience and attitudes, what is the relationship between the level of trust of the website, the intended willingness to reveal private information, and the actual willingness to reveal private information?
\n\n\tAdult eCommerce users are more likely to:
\n\n\tH1: Trust a website if they have a high degree of awareness for the website brand.
\n\n\tH2: Trust a website when there is a 3rd party security verification logo.
\n\n\tH3: Trust a website if they have a high degree of awareness for the brand of the 3rd party security verification logo.
\n\n\tH4: Trust a website if they have a high degree of awareness of the website brand, regardless of the 3rd party security verification logo.
\n\n\tH5: Actually reveal private information if they have a high degree of trust in the website.
\n\n\tH6: Have stronger intention to reveal private information if they have a high degree of trust in the website.
\n\n\tH7: State that they will reveal less private information when shopping online in comparison to the actual private information that they reveal when they are shopping online.
\n\n\tIn order to examine the relationship between brand awareness, trust, and the willingness to reveal private information, we conducted an online experiment using a 2x3 between-subjects factorial design (brand awareness of the website by brand awareness of the 3PSV).
\n\n\tIndependent Variables
\n\tBrand Awareness of Website (manipulated, nominal)
\n\tBrand Awareness of 3PSV (manipulate, nominal)
\n\tMediating Variable
\n\tTrust in Website (measured, interval)
\n\tDependent Variable
\n\tIntent to reveal private information (measured, interval)
\n\tActually revealing private information (measured, nominal)
\n\tControl Variables
\n\tDemographics: Gender, Age, Education, Nationality (nominal, ordinal, ratio)
\n\tPrevious Experience & Attitudes: eCommerce, Fraud (nominal, ordinal ratio)
\n\tThe results of this study indicate that three of our hypotheses (H1, H4, and H5) are supported and two hypothesis (H6 & H7) are partially supported. The results show that the trust of a website and the willingness to reveal private information is highly influenced by the brand awareness of the website, but not so much by the presence or brand awareness of the 3rd party security verification logo. Users’ overall attitudes toward online shopping and 3rd party security verification logo are also important in forming trust in a specific eCommerce website, however despite the participant’s stated importance of the presence of a 3PSV, it was significantly less important than brand awareness and trust in the website when. Moreover, the privacy paradox was supported by our results. Participants actually reveal more profile information than they said they would like to reveal.
\n\n\tWhile trust of a website is highly influenced by the familiarity heuristic of brand awareness, consumers’ attitudes or predisposition towards online shopping and the expertise heuristic that third-party security verification provides, also play a role on a theoretical level. Predisposition is shown to be tempered by age which showed that the older the consumer, the less inclined hey are to reveal private information. When familiarity and expertise are pitted against each other, however, our findings suggest that a choice occurs between the heuristics of familiarity and expertise, and that a representative heuristic prevails in favor of brand awareness in this case.
\n\n\tUltimately, trust of the website itself overpowers or mediates the effect of the familiarity heuristic when it comes to influencing the overall willingness to reveal private information. As trust itself is heuristic decision rule, and since trust was only marginally measured in this study, practical implications would be speculative at best. A combination of factors could be informing the level of trust in the website.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31062" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-25T23:57:08-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32977, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "278aa16b-d5f4-4830-afee-a16ea8cd421f", "siteSettingsId": 32977, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21015, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Psychological effects of frequency and clutter in web advertising", "slug": "psychological-effects-of-frequency-and-clutter-in-web-advertising", "uri": "medialab/research-article/psychological-effects-of-frequency-and-clutter-in-web-advertising", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:28-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:08:53-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32977, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/psychological-effects-of-frequency-and-clutter-in-web-advertising", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/psychological-effects-of-frequency-and-clutter-in-web-advertising", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [], "studentResearchers": { "40570": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sang Lee", "degreeCandidacy": null } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tLee, S. Y. , & Sundar, S. S. (2002, July). Psychological effects of frequency and clutter in Web advertising. Paper presented at the 52nd annual conference of the International Communication Association (ICA), Seoul, Korea.
\n\n\tFrequency of exposure to advertising is considered one of the fundamental determinants of advertising effectiveness in traditional mass communication. However, in the realm of Web advertising, frequency remains a relatively unexplored variable, despite phenomenal growth in Internet advertising. Understanding the function of frequency is important because it is critical to deciding the effectiveness of advertising, regardless of whether it is traditional media advertising or Web-based Internet advertising. Unlike frequency, advertising clutter has generally been viewed as a factor inhibiting (rather than enhancing) advertising effectiveness, in terms of both memory and attitude toward ads. Given the nature of the Web that often displays multiple banners with same sizes and shapes, ad clutter can hinder the processing of information contained in a specific banner. The current investigation is a modest first attempt at pinpointing the distinct as well as combinatory effects of frequency and clutter in a typical Web advertising environment.
\n\n\tMere exposure effects, interference effects, three-hit theory and two-factor theory were used to generate hypotheses for this study.
\n\n\tH1a: Banner advertising repetition will have a positive impact on ad recall.
\n\n\tH1b: Banner advertising repetition will have a positive impact on ad recognition.
\n\n\tH1c: Banner advertising repetition will have a positive impact on attitude toward ad.
\n\n\tH1d: Banner advertising repetition will have a positive impact on attitude toward brand.
\n\n\tH1e: Banner advertising repetition will have a positive impact on trial intention.
\n\n\tH2a: Ad clutter will have a negative impact on ad recall.
\n\n\tH2b: Ad clutter will have a negative impact on ad recognition.
\n\n\tH2c: Ad clutter will have a negative impact on attitude toward ad.
\n\n\tH2d: Ad clutter will have a negative impact on attitude toward brand.
\n\n\tH2e: Ad clutter will have a negative impact on trial intention.
\n\n\tH3a: Level of Internet experience will have a negative impact on ad recall.
\n\n\tH3b: Level of Internet experience will have a negative impact on ad recognition.
\n\n\tRQ1: For users of a news Website, controlling for time spent viewing a Webpage, what is the relationship between level of Internet experience and attitude toward ad?
\n\n\tRQ2: For users of a news Website, controlling for time spent viewing a Webpage, what is the relationship between level of Internet experience and attitude toward brand?
\n\n\tRQ3: For users of a news Website, controlling for time spent viewing a Webpage, what is the relationship between level of Internet experience and trial intention?
\n\n\tA fully-crossed 7 x 2 between-participants design (7 levels of frequency and 2 levels of clutter) with a control variable (time) was used in the experiment. Two hundred and fifty undergraduate students (150 females and 100 males) enrolled in communication classes participated in the experiment for extra credit. Participants were randomly assigned to one of fourteen conditions and were exposed to an experimental Website. At the time of recruiting, participants were told that the study concerned students' learning on the Internet. All participants signed an informed consent form prior to their participation in the experiment.
\n\n\tH1a: Supported. Advertising frequency had a significantly positive effect on recall.
\n\n\tH1b: Not supported. The effect for frequency on recognition was statistically not significant.
\n\n\tH1c: Not supported. The statistical analysis failed to support the hypothesis that frequency would have positive effects on attitude toward ad.
\n\n\tH1d: Supported. However, the effect for frequency on attitude toward brand was marginally significant.
\n\n\tH1e: Supported. The effect for frequency on trial intention was statistically significant.
\n\n\tH2a: Not supported. The analysis failed to support the hypothesis that clutter would have a negative effect on recall.
\n\n\tH2b: Supported. A significant main effect for clutter on ad recognition was found.
\n\n\tH2c: Not supported. No statistically significant effect for clutter on attitude toward ad was found.
\n\n\tH2d: Not supported. No statistically significant effect for clutter on attitude toward brand was found.
\n\n\tH2e: Not supported. No statistically significant effect for clutter on trial intention was found.
\n\n\tH3a: Supported. However, the effect for level of Internet experience was marginally significant.
\n\n\tH3b: Not supported. The effect for level of Internet experience on ad recognition was not significant.
\n\n\tRQ1, 2, and 3: No significant effect for Internet experience on attitude toward ad, attitude toward brand, and trial intention was found.
\n\n\tA couple of important two-way interactions were observed. There was a statistically significant interaction between clutter and frequency on attitude toward ad. This interaction showed that, while frequency did not affect users' attitude toward ad in a non-cluttered environment, frequency of exposure had a positive impact on users' attitude toward the stimulus ads in a cluttered environment. Another interaction, between frequency and level of Internet experience on recognition, approached significance. This interaction indicated that, when the frequency is low, level of Internet experience did not matter. However, when the frequency is high, level of Internet experience had a positive impact on users' recognition of the stimulus ads.
\n\n\tResults from the analyses suggest that frequency can be a powerful determinant of advertising effectiveness. Specifically, it is found that the frequency effects were significant on ad recall, attitude toward brand, and trial intention. Contrary to our expectations, however, the effects of banner clutter were weak across dependent variables. The clutter effects were significant only on ad recognition. Additionally, the significant effect of Internet experience was observed only on ad recall.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31062" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-25T23:54:56-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32973, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "7cf884de-40b5-415b-82bc-1c7ce079f9c2", "siteSettingsId": 32973, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21013, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Memory for web advertisements: exploring effects of animation, position, and product involvement", "slug": "memory-for-web-advertisements-exploring-effects-of-animation-position-and-p", "uri": "medialab/research-article/memory-for-web-advertisements-exploring-effects-of-animation-position-and-p", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:27-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:08:51-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32973, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/memory-for-web-advertisements-exploring-effects-of-animation-position-and-p", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/memory-for-web-advertisements-exploring-effects-of-animation-position-and-p", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [], "studentResearchers": { "40560": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Nokon Heo", "degreeCandidacy": null } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tHeo, N., & Sundar, S. S. (2001, May). Memory for Web advertisements: Exploring effects of animation, position, and product involvement. Paper presented to the Mass Communication Division at the 51st annual conference of the International Communication Association (ICA), Washington, DC.
\n\n\tIncreasingly, today's Web advertisers rely on animation for their banner ads to grab online users' attention. And, the sheer amount of banner ads in commercial Web sites raises a concern for ad clutter on the Web. This makes the position as an important consideration for Web advertising. Typical products advertised on the Web are such high involving products as automobiles, credit cards, computers, and telecommunication products. Recent research examining the effectiveness of Web advertising indicates that execution features of Web advertising can be effective in generating cognitive responses in Web users. The study investigates the direct and combination effects of three execution features - one structural feature (animation), one formal feature (position), and one content feature (product involvement) upon online users' memory for Web advertisements.
\n\n\tBased on prior research on effects of animation, position, and involvement, the following hypotheses were proposed:
\n\n\tH1: Animated ads will result in better recognition memory than static ads.
\n\n\tH2: Animated ads will result in poorer recall memory than static ads.
\n\n\tH3: Memory for online news content will be poorer when the news is accompanied by animated ads rather than static ads.
\n\n\tH4: Ads positioned near the top of a news page will result in better memory than those near the bottom of a page.
\n\n\tH5: Ad products perceived as high involving will be remembered better than ad products perceived as low involving.
\n\n\tH6: Animated ads will be remembered better than static ads if they feature a low involving product as opposed to a high involving product.
\n\n\tFifty-seven male and female undergraduate students read 8 separate news stories on the Web and asked to fill out a questionnaire about their memory of the banner advertisements and news stories. Each news story was accompanied by a banner ad positioned either at the top or bottom, either animated or static, or either featured a high or low involving product.
\n\n\tH1 & H2: Not supported. No recall and recognition memory difference was found between animated and static ads.
\n\n\tH3: Not supported. Animation had no effects on news memory.
\n\n\tH4: Not supported. Bottom ads were recalled more than top ads.
\n\n\tH5: Supported. High involving products were recognized more than low involving products.
\n\n\tH6: Not supported. No interaction between animation and product involvement was found.
\n\n\tIn addition to main effects and two-way interactions, data analyses revealed several three-way interactions of animation, position, and involvement upon ad recall and story memory.
\n\n\tNo animation effects on memory can be interpreted in terms of \"Why not moving effects\" for static ads. Animation viewed in isolation will not reveal the whole story. The findings suggest that other variables such as position and involvement interact with it. Therefore, a multi-measure approach to investigating animation effects can present a fuller picture. In addition, control of visual and textual information may be needed to fully examine animation and position effects.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31062" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-25T23:49:42-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32967, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "e270c780-2626-44a0-805d-9f8e5ea9f499", "siteSettingsId": 32967, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21011, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Wait! why is it not moving? Attractive and distractive ocular responses to web ads", "slug": "wait-why-is-it-not-moving-attractive-and-distractive-ocular-responses-to-we", "uri": "medialab/research-article/wait-why-is-it-not-moving-attractive-and-distractive-ocular-responses-to-we", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:26-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:08:48-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32967, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/wait-why-is-it-not-moving-attractive-and-distractive-ocular-responses-to-we", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/wait-why-is-it-not-moving-attractive-and-distractive-ocular-responses-to-we", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [], "studentResearchers": { "40548": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Smita Chaturvedi", "degreeCandidacy": null } }, "40549": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Nokon Heo", "degreeCandidacy": null } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tHeo, N., Sundar, S. S., & Chaturvedi, S. (2001, August). Wait! Why is it not moving? Attractive and distractive ocular responses to Web ads. Paper presented to the Advertising Division at the annual conference of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC) Washington, DC.
\n\n\tThere are several problems associated with some of the existing measures of Web advertising, particularly banner advertisements. Until now, Web advertisers have relied on a kind of \"traffic report\" that provided estimates of click-through rates, reach, frequency, and gross rating points. However, it has been reported that these measures were hard to identify visitor characteristics and monitor visitor traffic and flow patterns, and thus raising questions regarding the accuracy of reach and frequency data. In this study, an alternative technique for measuring the effectiveness of Web advertisement was provided by monitoring Internet users' moment-to-moment eye movements during Web browsing. More specifically, we tracked participants' eye movements while they read news stories on the Web to see if certain features of banner ads could generate cognitive responses including visual attention to banner ad features. Three banner ad features examined include animation, position, and product involvement.
\n\n\tIn order to generate hypotheses regarding three independent variables, distinctiveness theories, limited-capacity theory, spatial information acquisition theory, and orienting response theory were used.
\n\n\tH1a: Animated ads will generate lesser number of horizontal eye movements than static ads.
\n\n\tH1b: Animated ads will generate greater number of vertical eye movements than static ads.
\n\n\tH2a: Ads positioned near the bottom of the page will generate lesser number of horizontal eye movements than those near the bottom of the page.
\n\n\tH2b: Ads positioned near the top of the page will generate greater number of vertical eye movements than those near the bottom of the page.
\n\n\tH3a: Ads featuring high involving products will generate lesser number of horizontal eye movements than ads featuring low involving products.
\n\n\tH3b: Ads featuring high involvement products will generate greater number of vertical eye movements than ads featuring low involving products.
\n\n\tA 2 (animation) X 2 (position) X 2 (product involvement) within-participants factorial experiment was designed. A total of forty-six participants read 8 different online news stories on a computer screen. Embedded within each news page was a banner ad positioned either at the top or bottom, either animated or static, and featured either a high-involving or low-involving product. During the browsing, participants' eye movements were recorded on a separate computer by online recording of electrooculography (EOG). The EOG recording produced two separate eye movements: vertical and horizontal. Vertical movement was operationalized as an indicator of the distracting effects of banner ads to reading the news stories. Horizontal movement, particularly saccadic eye moments, were assumed to indicate participants' levels of attention to the news stories.
\n\n\tH1a & H1b: Not supported. Both animated and static ads generated about the same number of horizontal and vertical eye movements.
\n\n\tH2a: Supported. Top ads generated lesser number of horizontal eye movements than bottom ads indicating a distracting effect by position.
\n\n\tH2b: Not supported. Bottom ads generated a greater number of vertical eye movements than the top ads.
\n\n\tH3a: Supported. High involving product ads generated lesser number of horizontal eye movements than low involving ads.
\n\n\tH3b: Not supported. However, there was no difference for vertical eye movement between high and low involving products.
\n\n\tIn addition to the observed main effects, we also found several significant interaction effects between the three independent variables.
\n\n\tThe null effects for animation can be explained by \"Why not moving effects\" for static ads. The findings from this study also suggest strong \"novelty effects\" for position. Also, the presence of strong content and form lead to discernible interaction effects. In addition, the results revealed that EOG is a valid indicator of OR. A useful recommendation is that a multi-measure approach to investigating animation effects can present a fuller picture.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31062" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-25T23:30:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32963, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "abfc464b-81bf-4175-8472-bba1ca84bccf", "siteSettingsId": 32963, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21009, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Visual orientation and memory for web advertising:", "slug": "visual-orientation-and-memory-for-web-advertising", "uri": "medialab/research-article/visual-orientation-and-memory-for-web-advertising", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:25-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:50:37-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32963, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/visual-orientation-and-memory-for-web-advertising", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/visual-orientation-and-memory-for-web-advertising", "subtitle": "A study of animation and position effects", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [], "studentResearchers": { "40543": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Nokon Heo", "degreeCandidacy": null } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tHeo, N., & Sundar, S. S. (2000, June). Visual orientation and memory for web advertising: A study of animation and position effects. Paper presented to the Information Systems Division at the 50th annual conference of the International Communication Association (ICA), Acapulco, Mexico.
\n\n\tThis study investigated psychological effects of animation and ad position within the context of online advertising. The study examined the effects of ad animation and position on Internet viewers' visual orientation toward and memory of ads. Visual orientation was operationalized by recording participants' eye movements via Electrooculargraphy (EOG) during their exposure to the online stimuli.
\n\n\tWe asked the following research questions:
\n\n\tRQ1: What is the relationship between ad position and visual orientation for the ad?
\n\n\tRQ2: What is the relationship between ad position and memory for the ad?
\n\n\tHypotheses
\n\n\t\"Motion effect theories\" suggest that moving images stimulate more \"visual orienting responses\" than still images.
\n\n\t\"Distinctiveness theories of motion\" state that animation or moving objects \"pop-up\" in the early visual information processing to capture viewers' immediate attention.
\n\n\tThese two theories lead to the following hypothesis:
\n\n\tH1: Animated ads will generate greater visual orientation than static ads.
\n\n\t\"Dual-coding theory\" suggests that any stored information in long-term memory that consists of vivid visual images coupled with verbal information facilitates retrieval of information because they leave more available memory traces. This leads to the following hypothesis:
\n\n\tH2: Animated ads are more likely to be remembered than static ads.
\n\n\tThirty-two participants were randomly assigned to one of four orders of a 2 (animation) x 5 (position) within-participants factorial experiment. Ten separate online news pages, each featuring a news story and an ad, were used as stimulus material. Each ad was positioned at one of the five positions (top, bottom, center, sides), and half of ads were animated while the remaining half were static.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/position1_1.jpg\")
\n\tA total of six electrodes were places on participants' face to measure ocular movement. Participants were exposed to 10 news sites for 15 seconds each automatically refreshed by the computer. After two more written instruction, participants read the first news page. After all 10 sites, participants' eye movements were calibrated. After the calibration, participants completed a paper-and-pencil questionnaire.
\n\n\tH1. Not supported. Animated ads did not generate greater visual orientation than static ads.
\n\n\tH2. Supported. Animated ads were remembered better than static ads.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/position2.jpg\")
\n\tThe results also revealed that visual orientation was highest when the ads were positioned to the sides (compared to ads positioned at the top, bottom, or center). The relationship between ad position and memory approached significance such that participants exposed to ads placed at the sides had higher memory scores than those participants exposed to ads placed at the top, bottom, or center.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/position3.jpg\")
\n\tThe findings from the study suggest that ad animation and position are important non-content related ad characteristics that can determine the effectiveness of web advertising. Physiological measure of visual orientation measured by EOG can be an alternative measurement tool for advertising effectiveness, as evidenced by a positive relationship between EOG and ad memory.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31062" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-25T23:11:27-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32955, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "195b4cc8-441a-4348-95d4-f3e7c11ac189", "siteSettingsId": 32955, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21007, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Animation and priming effects in online advertising", "slug": "animation-and-priming-effects-in-online-advertising", "uri": "medialab/research-article/animation-and-priming-effects-in-online-advertising", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:23-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:08:44-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32955, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/animation-and-priming-effects-in-online-advertising", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/animation-and-priming-effects-in-online-advertising", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [], "studentResearchers": { "40531": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Lisa Pisciotta (BA Student)", "degreeCandidacy": null } }, "40532": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "George Otto", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "40533": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Karen Schlag", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tSundar, S. S., Otto, G., Pisciotta, L., & Schlag, K. (1997, July). Animation and priming effects in online advertising. Paper presented to the Advertising Division at the annual conference of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC), Chicago.
\n\n\tOnline users, unlike audiences for traditional media, are neither passive nor captive. Advertisers have tried to make use of the technological possibilities of the web and innovating the art of advertising in the process of trying to attract as many online users as they can. Two recent innovations in online ads are animation and priming. Increasingly, still ads are being replaced by animated ads on the web. Another enticement is the placement of ads in a contextually relevant manner such that online ads are often relevant to the online text that the user has called up on the web. That is, the advertiser is hoping that users are primed by their own interest as well as the non-ad content of the page in a way that will make them more receptive to the ad. The purpose of this study is to examine the psychological effects of both animation and priming in web advertising.
\n\n\tPast research findings indicate that animation results in increased attention. Also, higher levels of attention result in better memory. This leads to the following hypothesis:
\n\n\tH1: Animated version of an online advertisement will be remembered better than the still version of the same ad.
\n\n\tPast findings also indicate that animation also results in increased arousal and subjective evaluations of animated content. This leads to the following hypotheses:
\n\n\tH2: Animated version of an online advertisement will lead to greater arousal than the still version of the same ad.
\n\n\tH3: Animated version of an online advertisement will be evaluated more positively than the still version of the same ad.
\n\n\tBased on prior research findings that suggest that emotionally related primes can influence people's feelings and actions, the following hypotheses were generated:
\n\n\tH4: Participants primed with information about the content of an online ad will have better memory for the content of the ad than those participants who are not primed.
\n\n\tH5: Primed participants will evaluate an online ad more positively than will non-primed participants.
\n\n\tH6: Primed participants will be aroused more by an online ad than will non-primed participants.
\n\n\tForty-one participants took part in a between-participants experiment. Participants were asked to view online news and advertising material on a website. A factorial design was used, with two levels of animation (animated, still) and two levels of priming (primed, non-primed). For two of the groups, instructions included a verbal prime related to the content of the advertisement used in the study. The non-primed groups did not receive a verbal prime. Also, the two primed groups were given a visual prime in the form of a screen saver related to the advertisement when they sat down in front of the computer. Once instructed to begin, participants were led to the modified front page of an online newspaper site. Included among the items was an advertisement designed for the experiment.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Screen_Shot_2015-03-25_at_4.14.44_PM.png\")
\n\tH1: Not Supported. The animated version of the online advertisement was not remembered better than the still version of the same ad.
\n\n\tH2: Not Supported. The animated version of the online advertisement did not lead to greater arousal than the still version of the same ad.
\n\n\tH3: Partially supported. Participants in the animated condition rated the ad less of a nuisance and less likely to be confused with news content.
\n\n\tH4: Disconfirmed. Primed participants, on average, remembered significantly lesser material than their non-primed counterparts.
\n\n\tH5: Not Supported. Primed participants did not evaluate the online ad more positively than non-primed participants.
\n\n\tH6: Not Supported. Primed participants were not more aroused by the online ad than non-primed participants.
\n\n\tAn interesting interaction effect was also found. Animation and priming seem to have a combined effect on users' arousal such that when both animation and priming are simultaneously present (or completely absent) on a website, they cause a significant decrease in arousal than when one is present and the other absent.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/anipriming6.jpg\")
\n\tThe present study offers new directions for comparing new media with traditional media by adequately incorporating structural features of the new medium. It makes an important contribution in documenting the psychological effects of technological features unique to the web. Specifically, it considered animation and priming, and found that these two elements have a combined effect on users' arousal level, but have minimal, if any, effect on users' memory and evaluations.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31062" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-25T23:08:53-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32947, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "e3c87a7e-570a-42a2-8c0b-26dedb88deb0", "siteSettingsId": 32947, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21005, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Information quality of specialist versus generalist tourism websites", "slug": "information-quality-of-specialist-versus-generalist-tourism-websites", "uri": "medialab/research-article/information-quality-of-specialist-versus-generalist-tourism-websites", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:22-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:08:40-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32947, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/information-quality-of-specialist-versus-generalist-tourism-websites", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/information-quality-of-specialist-versus-generalist-tourism-websites", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [], "studentResearchers": { "40517": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Ishita Ghosh", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "40520": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Young Shin Lim", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "40522": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Eunice Eunjung Yoo", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tDue to its convenience and amount of information available, the Internet constitutes an important platform for information exchange between the tourists and tourism providers. In this regard, it is critical to understand the nature of tourism websites as well as its information quality in order to provide an important stepping-stone for the development of successful marketing programs and better information systems in tourism. While tourism websites are becoming increasingly important, there is a lack of empirical research to describe and explain the differences of information quality of tourism websites. In this respect, this study set out to compare the generalist tourism websites and specialist tourism websites with the focus on their information quality.
\n\n\tFor tourism websites, what is the relationship between the level of specialization and information quality?
\n\n\tHypothesis: There is a difference in information quality between website and generalist website.
\n\tHypothesis 1: Specialist websites provide better information quality in terms of its completeness than generalist website.
\n\tHypothesis 2: Specialist websites provide better information quality in terms of its structure than generalist website.
\n\tHypothesis 3: Specialist websites provide better information quality in terms of its personalization than generalist website.
\n\tHypothesis 4: Specialist websites provide better information quality in terms of its timeliness than generalist website.
\n\tHypothesis 5: Specialist websites provide better information quality in terms of its relevance than generalist website.
\n\tHypothesis 6: Specialist websites provide better information quality in terms of its interactivity than generalist website.
\n\tHypothesis 7: Generalist websites provide better information quality in terms of its reputation than specialist website.
\n\tIn order to test the hypotheses, we conducted content analysis of tourism websites of seventeen US cities. The unit of analysis was tourism website main page for specialist websites and city overview page for generalist websites. 102 tourism webpage on seventeen U.S. cities, three generalists and three specialists for each city, were chosen for analysis. Independent variable was the level of specialization, and dependent variables were information quality (completeness, structure, personalization, timeliness, relevance, reputation). Codes were developed inductively based on the features of the tourism websites, and later matched to dependent variables.
\n\n\tGeneralist websites were more likely to report city information in the menu and body, maps in the menu and body, host-specific bandwagon cues, destination-specific authority cues, irrelevant ads with pictures, relevant ads without pictures, photo galleries with control, relevant merchandising with and without pictures, timestamps on the main page information, existence of reservation functions, recommended non-specific destinations, general search and finally, forums.
\n\tConversely, specialist websites were more likely to report sub-menus, parking information both in the menu and the body, event information in the menu and in the body without dates, relevant ads with pictures, transportation information in the body, attractions information in the body, event calendars, events with dates, specialized search, visitor differentiation, slideshows with control, irrelevant pop-ups, and location specific attractions information in both the menu and the body. In summary, our results demonstrated that there are significant differences in information quality between specialist and generalist websites.
\n\tWhile extant literature asserts the superiority of specialized media only in terms of how their users perceive the media content, our study was conclusively able to establish that there does indeed exist differences in the actual content published by online media, at least with respect to generalist and specialist tourism websites. Some of these distinctions are intuitive, yet have never been confirmed on paper. Although none of our sub-hypotheses were fully supported, we did find significant differences between generalist and specialist tourism websites and have documented them in this study.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31062" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-25T23:02:40-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32937, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "e82016a7-3386-4777-bb79-399b34481353", "siteSettingsId": 32937, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21003, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Does web advertising work? Memory for print vs. online media", "slug": "does-web-advertising-work-memory-for-print-vs-online-media", "uri": "medialab/research-article/does-web-advertising-work-memory-for-print-vs-online-media", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:20-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:08:38-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32937, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/does-web-advertising-work-memory-for-print-vs-online-media", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/does-web-advertising-work-memory-for-print-vs-online-media", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40499": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sunetra Narayan", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "40500": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Rafael Obregon", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "40501": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Charu Uppal", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "40503": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Shuanghong Wu", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tSundar, S. S., Narayan, S., Obregon, R., & Uppal, C. (1998). Does web advertising work? Memory for print vs. online media. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 75(4), 822-835.
\n\n\tSundar, S. S., Narayan, S., Obregon, R., & Uppal, C. (1997, August). Does web advertising work? Memory for print vs. online media. Paper presented at the annual conference of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Chicago, IL.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/webad1.jpg\")
\n\tThe rapid growth of web advertising has sparked renewed interest in the question: Does the new medium work better than traditional media in spreading the advertiser's message? While this question is of obvious practical importance to media planners and advertising professionals, it also raises fundamental theoretical questions for media scholars: How much memory do people have for online ads compared to print ads? Also, are these memory differences, if any, unique to advertising content or are they generalizable to all content? The present investigation attempts to address the above questions through an experiment designed to measure memory differences for identical content transmitted via different media. Specifically, it measures recall and recognition of advertising as well as news story content on a newspaper front page and compares it with recall and recognition of the same content presented on a website.
\n\n\tGiven the paucity of past research on incidental memory for advertising content, no specific hypotheses are proposed for the present study.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/webad2.jpg\")
\n\tForty-eight participants took part in a between-participants experiment. They were exposed to the front page of a fictitious newspaper featuring two news stories and one advertisement. Half the participants read the page in print form while the other half read the same content in online form. Both the experimental conditions were identical in content as well as layout. After participants read the page, their memory for ad content as well as story content was measured by a battery of recall and recognition questions administered via a paper-and-pencil questionnaire.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/webad3.jpg\")
![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/webad4.jpg\")
RESULTS\n\tParticipants exposed to the print version of a newspaper front page remembered significantly more advertisement material than participants exposed to the same front page online. The study also found that participants in print and online conditions were not statistically different in the amount of news story information they remembered.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/webad5.jpg\")
\n\tAn important theoretical implication of this study is that in order to find differences between two media, it is not necessary for the media to differ in their modality (since both print and online media, at least in this study, shared the same mode of text). A clear implication for advertisers is that incidental memory for ad content is significantly lower in online medium compared to print medium. An important practical implication of this study is that, in order for web advertising to work, advertisers have to do more to attract readers than they would in the print medium. For example, animated ads as opposed to still ads might be needed to attract online users.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31062", "31078" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-25T22:59:12-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32933, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "306bc881-dbbf-4f69-8509-86cec9134b13", "siteSettingsId": 32933, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 21001, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Interstitials and their relevance to website content: influence on website credibility", "slug": "interstitials-and-their-relevance-to-website-content-influence-on-website-c", "uri": "medialab/research-article/interstitials-and-their-relevance-to-website-content-influence-on-website-c", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:19-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:08:36-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32933, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/interstitials-and-their-relevance-to-website-content-influence-on-website-c", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/interstitials-and-their-relevance-to-website-content-influence-on-website-c", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40493": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Carmen Stavrositu", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tInterstitials are perceived as some of the most intrusive and frustrating Web ads.
\n\n\tDoes relevance have the potential of alleviating this negative affect? Do they shape only attitudes toward the ad, or also perceptions of the Websites hosting them?
\n\n\tA study (N = 44) was conducted to answer these questions, by investigating whether perceptions of Website credibility vary as a function of the type of interstitials present on a Website (pop-up vs pop-under) and their relevance to the Website content. Specifically, a 2 (Relevance) X 2 (Interstitials) between-participants experiment was conducted in order to determine perceptions of credibility of the Website and attitudes toward the ad.
\n\n\tInterstitials’ relevance proved to be a key factor in shaping attitudes not only toward the interstitials themselves, but also toward the Website hosting them. Ad relevance is more than ordinarily important in forming perceptions of the Websites hosting them. Irrespective of their type and format, when advertisements are relevant, they seem to be perceived as providing extra information to that contained on the Website, and therefore are deemed as more helpful. One very surprising finding of this study consists in the lack of main effects for Interstitials on the Aad indices, except for the Indifference one.
\n\n\tResults indicate that while interstitial type did not seem to have strong influence on evaluations of the ads and of the Website, their relevance played a crucial role in perceptions of both the ads and of the credibility of the Website hosting the ads.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31062" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-25T22:54:58-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32929, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "72dd6ea5-2789-41e8-a4f1-c34030bccee9", "siteSettingsId": 32929, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20999, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Psychological effects of pop-up windows and animation in web advertising", "slug": "psychological-effects-of-pop-up-windows-and-animation-in-web-advertising", "uri": "medialab/research-article/psychological-effects-of-pop-up-windows-and-animation-in-web-advertising", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:18-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:08:35-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32929, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/psychological-effects-of-pop-up-windows-and-animation-in-web-advertising", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/psychological-effects-of-pop-up-windows-and-animation-in-web-advertising", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40488": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "FangFang Diao", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tDiao, F., & Sundar, S. S. (2002, July). Orienting response and memory for Web advertisement: Exploring effects of pop-up window and animationPaper to be presented at the 52nd annual conference of the International Communication Association (ICA), Seoul, Korea.
\n\n\tThis study investigated the direct and combined effects of one structural feature (animation) and one formal feature (pop-up window) on online users' orienting response and memory for Web advertisements. Industry analysts have widely speculated that pop-up ads are enormously effective in attracting user attention, but so far there is little, if any, public empirical research concerning the effectiveness of pop-up ads. Especially, there is lack of empirical research pertaining to the potential effect of a pop-up window in conjunction with the presence of banner ads on the same Web page, even though both banner ads and pop-up ads coexist on a large number of portal Web sites. The present study examines the direct and combined effects of one structural feature (animation) and one formal feature (pop-up window) on online users' attention to Web ads, as indicated by orienting response (OR) and memory.
\n\n\tH1a: Individuals will exhibit orienting responses with the sudden onset of pop-up windows.
\n\n\tH1b: Individuals will exhibit stronger orienting responses with the sudden onset of pop-up windows than with the onset of banner ads.
\n\n\tH2: Individuals who view animated ads will exhibit stronger orienting responses than those who view static ads.
\n\n\tH3: The animation effect on orienting responses will be stronger for pop-up than for banner ads.
\n\n\tH4a: The score for ad recognition will be highest when both pop-up ads and banner ads are animated, will be lowest when pop-up ads and banner ads are both static, and will be in-between when pop-up ads and banner ads are not of the same ilk.
\n\n\tH4b: The score for ad recall will be lowest when both pop-up ads and banner ads are animated, will be highest when pop-up ads and banner ads are both static, and will be in-between when pop-up ads and banner ads are not of the same ilk.
\n\n\tH5a: Ad recognition for pop-up ads will be higher than for banner ads.
\n\n\tH5b: Ad recall for pop-up ads will be lower than for banner ads.
\n\n\tTo examine the direct and combined effects of animation and pop-up window on online users' orienting responses and memory of Web advertisements, a 4x2x4x15 mixed-design factorial experiment was conducted, with animation condition as a between-participants variable and type of Web advertisement (banner ad vs. pop-up ad) as a within-participants variable. In this study, four versions of presentation of animation were used: AA -- animated banner ad + animated pop-up ad; AS -- animated banner ad + static pop-up ad; SA -- static banner ad + animated pop-up ad; SS -- static banner ad + static pop-up ad. The first independent variable, animation condition, then had four levels: AA, AS, SA, SS. The second independent variable, ad type, had two levels: banner ad or pop-up ad. To increase the generalizability of our findings, each participant (N = 50) was exposed to four different Web sites, each with a banner and a pop-up ad. The third independent variable, site ID, had four levels: site A, site B, site C, and site D. The fourth independent variable, time, had 15 levels, ranging from second 1 to second 15.
\n\n\tThere were two dependent variables: orienting response and ad memory. Orienting response was monitored via heart-rate measures throughout the test period while ad memory was measured by means of a post-experiment paper-and-pencil questionnaire.
\n\n\tH1a: Supported. The occurrence of orienting response with the onset of pop-up windows was statistically significant.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/popup1.jpg\")
\n\t
\n\n\tH1b: Supported. Individuals exhibited stronger orienting responses with the sudden onset of pop-up windows than with the onset of banner ads.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/popup2.jpg\")
\n\tH2: Not supported. Individuals who viewed animated ads did not exhibit stronger orienting responses than those who view static ads.
\n\n\tH3: Not supported. The animation effect on orienting responses was not stronger for pop-up than for banner ads.
\n\n\tH4a & H4b: Not supported. No main effect for animation condition on either ad recognition or ad recall was found.
\n\n\tH5a: Not supported. Ad recognition for banner ads were higher than for pop-up ads.
\n\n\tH5b: Not supported. Ad recall for pop-up ads was higher than for banner ads.
\n\n\tAlthough not hypothesized, there were some interesting interaction effects.
\n\n\tTwo-Way Interactions
\n\n\tA significant interaction effect was found between ad type and time.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/popup3.jpg\")
\n\tA near-significant interaction effect was found between animation condition and ad type.
\n\n\tA two-way interaction effect was found for animation condition and site ID on BPM change.
\n\n\tThree-Way Interactions
\n\n\tThere were two three-way interaction effects in this study. A three-way interaction effect was found for animation condition, site ID, and ad type. This three-way interaction indicates that different combinations of presentation features and message content can have great impact on eliciting physiological changes. Somewhat the same conclusion was drawn from examining the other significant three-way interaction effect between animation condition, site ID, and time.
\n\n\tFour-Way Interaction
\n\n\tSurprisingly, there was a four-way interaction effect for BPM change, suggesting that, depending on the sites, the combination effect of ad type, animation condition, and time vary. Therefore, site content appears to be a pivotal determinant of OR.
\n\n\tData analyses revealed a significant impact of pop-up window on orienting responses. The animation effect on orienting response was more complex than expected. Message content played an important role in eliciting orienting responses as demonstrated in various interaction effects. A main effect for animation condition on ad memory did not emerge. A main effect for ad type on ad memory was detected, but the direction of the means disconfirmed hypothesized expectations.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31062" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-18T23:05:46-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32921, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "49e106be-f727-4a5f-ac86-4339438295f8", "siteSettingsId": 32921, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20997, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Arousal, memory, and impression-formation effects of animation speed in web advertising", "slug": "arousal-memory-and-impression-formation-effects-of-animation-speed-in-web-a", "uri": "medialab/research-article/arousal-memory-and-impression-formation-effects-of-animation-speed-in-web-a", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:17-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:08:32-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32921, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/arousal-memory-and-impression-formation-effects-of-animation-speed-in-web-a", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/arousal-memory-and-impression-formation-effects-of-animation-speed-in-web-a", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40476": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sriram Kalyanaraman", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40477": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Christine Martin", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40478": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Carson B Wagner", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tSundar, S. S., Kalyanaraman, S., Martin, C., & Wagner, C. B. (2001, May). Arousal, memory, and impression-formation effects of animation speed in Web advertising. Paper presented to the Information Systems Division at the 51st annual conference of the International Communication Association (ICA), Washington DC.
\n\n\tAnimated advertisements on the Web come in a variety of shapes, sizes and colors. But, they also animate at different speeds. While recent studies have shown animated ads to be more effective than still ads, the role played by the rate of motion in animated ads has been neglected. Given that the primary function of animation is to attract attention, such differences in speed of animation are likely to lead to differential levels of attention to the ads. Researchers have pointed out that speed is an obvious component of an interactive media system, and the degree to which it is realized in an interaction is bound to determine one's psychological experience with the system. An experiment was designed to address this issue by focusing specifically on the physiological and psychological effects of animation speeds in Web ads.
\n\n\tSeveral hypotheses, based on motion-effects, limited-capacity, and vividness-effects theories, were proposed.
\n\n\tH1: Fast animation ads will elicit greater physiological arousal than slow animation ads.
\n\n\tH2a: A slow animation ad will elicit greater physiological arousal when it follows, rather than precedes, a fast animation ad.
\n\n\tH2b: A fast animation ad will elicit greater physiological arousal when it follows, rather than precedes, a slow animation ad.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/animation1.jpg\")
\n\tH3: Ad recognition for fast animation ads will be greater than ad recognition for slow animation ads.
\n\n\tH4: Ad recall for fast animation ads will be lesser than ad recall for slow animation ads.
\n\n\tH5a: A fast animation ad will elicit significantly greater positive impressions of the website when it follows, rather than precedes, a slow animation ad.
\n\n\tH5b: A slow animation ad will elicit significantly greater positive impressions of the website when it precedes, rather than follows, a fast animation ad.
\n\n\tForty-seven participants in a 2 (Animation) X 2 (Sequence) mixed-factorial experiment were exposed to two Web pages, each with a news story surrounded by four online advertisements. The speed (fast, slow) with which the ads were animated served as the within-participants factor, with the fast animation ads averaging 55 animations/flashes per minute and the slow animation ads averaging 21.5 animations/flashes per minute. The sequence (fast, slow; slow, fast) in which participants were exposed to fast and slow animation served as the between-participants factor. The primary dependent variable, physiological arousal, was measured by on-line recordings of skin conductance level (SCL). In addition, after exposure, participants filled out a paper-and-pencil questionnaire eliciting their behavioral intention toward the ads, their evaluation of the Web page as a whole, and their memory for details in the news stories as well as the ads on the pages.
\n\n\tA series of 2x2 mixed ANOVAs was conducted with the two-category animation speed (fast, slow) variable as the within-participants factor and the two-category animation sequence variable (fast-slow, slow-fast) as the between-participants factor.
\n\n\tH1: Supported. When the ANOVA was performed with arousal (as indicated by percentage change in tonic skin conductance from baseline) as the dependent variable, a significant main effect for speed emerged, with study participants showing higher arousal levels while exposed to fast-animation ads than while responding to slow-animation versions of the same ads.
\n\n\tH2a: Not supported. The page with slow animation ads elicited greater arousal when it followed, rather than preceded, the page with fast animation ads, but a post-hoc test failed to show a statistically significant differentiation between these two means.
\n\n\tH2b: Supported. The Web page with fast animation ads elicited significantly greater arousal when it followed, rather than preceded, the page with slow animation ads.
\n\n\tH3: Not supported. There were no significant differences between the two speeds on the recognition measure.
\n\n\tH4: Not supported. There were no significant differences between the two speeds on the recall measure.
\n\n\tH5a: Not supported. The sequence in which participants were exposed to the page with fast animation ads did not affect their impressions of the page.
\n\n\tH5b: Disconfirmed. Participants found the Web page with slow animation ads more appealing when it was preceded by a page with fast animation ads than when it was not.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/animation2.jpg\")
\n\tIn summary, results from this experiment offer support to the notion that animation speed of Web ads is a psychologically relevant construct. People's responses to animation speed, however, seem to be overwhelmingly moderated by the sequence in which animation speeds are presented to them, as evidenced by the presence of significant interaction between the speed variable and the sequence variable on all analyses producing statistically significant results. Specifically, results confirm the hypothesized ability of fast animation ads to elicit significantly higher arousal then their slow counterparts, particularly when the fast ads are preceded by slow ones. However, on cognitive indicators and impression formation measures, psychological responses to fast animation ads are relatively unaffected by the sequence of presentation of ads with differential speeds whereas responses to slow animation ads, in general, are more positive when they are preceded by fast ads than when they are not.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31062" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-12T23:52:26-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32915, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "161f31fd-d5b3-4f62-8420-616944c38846", "siteSettingsId": 32915, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20995, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The effects of eula presentation style on user attention and comprehension", "slug": "the-effects-of-eula-presentation-style-on-user-attention-and-comprehension", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-effects-of-eula-presentation-style-on-user-attention-and-comprehension", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:16-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:08:31-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32915, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-effects-of-eula-presentation-style-on-user-attention-and-comprehension", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-effects-of-eula-presentation-style-on-user-attention-and-comprehension", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40467": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Joshua Auriemma", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40468": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Matthew Lesniewski", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tUnder the current American jurisprudence, End User License Agreements (EULAs) act as a surrogate for a meeting of the minds between two parties; alarming, then, is the commonly held notion that no one reads them (Ben-Shahar, 2009). Although it serves as the primary impetus for this paper, some legal scholars reject the notion that most people do not read these agreements as they simply have not seen empirical proof that such is the case (Becher & Unger-Aviram, 2012). This paper therefore serves a twofold purpose: (1) empirically determine whether or not people are actually reading EULAs; and (2) examine the relationship between the presentation and content of these agreements on both reader attention and comprehension.
\n\n\tRQ1: For computer users, controlling for age, gender, and power users, what is the relationship between visual and textual presentation of a EULA and time spent looking at the EULA?
\n\tRQ2: For computer users, controlling for age, gender, and power users, what is the relationship between visual and textual presentation of a EULA and comprehension of the EULA?
\n\tH1: There will be a positive correlation between time spent looking at the EULA and reading comprehension.
\n\tH2: Most participants in the control condition will admit that they did not read the EULA.
\n\tH3a: In the common EULA presentation style where the Accept button is disabled until the user scrolls to the bottom of the agreement, users will spend longer at the EULA screen compared to the control.
\n\tH3b: In the common EULA presentation style where the Accept button is disabled until the user scrolls to the bottom of the agreement, measurement of comprehension will be lower than the control group.
\n\tH4a: The Bernstein-style EULA will cause participants to regard the EULA longer than the control.
\n\tH4b: The Bernstein-style EULA will result in higher comprehension than the control group.
\n\tParticipants were invited to join a research study involving [the cover] video game player reflexes. Three different versions of an End User License Agreement (“EULA”) were created and saved to a USB drive. Participants were required to bring their own laptops to the study and upon arriving at the laboratory, were randomly assigned a flash drive with an equal probability of containing any one of the EULA presentations. They were told to install the Reflexology software and instructions would appear on the screen. The program monitored how long the participants looked at the EULA, and once they clicked “Accept,” they were given a questionnaire measuring, inter alia,license comprehension, attitudes towards the EULA, power user propensity, and self-assessment of comprehension.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/JoshFigure01.jpg\")
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/JoshFigure02.jpg\")
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/JoshFigure03.jpg\")
\n\tOne-way ANOVA for EULA comprehension by presentation version yielded insignificant results (F=0.68, p=0.51, df=2), so H3b and H4b were not supported. However, one of the specific comprehension items revealed a marginally significant difference in favor of the Bernstein-style EULA (F=3.19, p=0.02, df=2). Moreover, there were mediating effects for normalized time spent reading the EULA, self-reported reading of the EULA, and self-reported ease in understanding that favored the Bernstein-style presentation. Lastly, we repeated our analysis with versions 1 & 2 coded as one category. In doing so, we identified interactions between version, normalized time, gender, and power usage.
\n\n\tWe witnessed a series of interactions that painted a picture of a clearly preferable EULA presentation. Participants spent the longest amount of time looking at the Bernstein-style EULA. Those participants who observed the EULA for longer had higher comprehension. Similarly, those who self-reported reading the EULA (most of whom were assigned versions 2 and 3) had higher comprehension. In addition, participants found the Bernstein-style EULA more visually appealing and easier to understand than the alternatives. Finally, participants who viewed the Bernstein-style EULA rated their comprehension of the agreement higher than in the other conditions.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31059" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-12T23:49:12-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32909, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "1d5c9f8f-2f27-4ec3-98b5-1661a10226cc", "siteSettingsId": 32909, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20993, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Modality effects on memory for multimedia messages", "slug": "modality-effects-on-memory-for-multimedia-messages", "uri": "medialab/research-article/modality-effects-on-memory-for-multimedia-messages", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:14-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:08:28-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32909, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/modality-effects-on-memory-for-multimedia-messages", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/modality-effects-on-memory-for-multimedia-messages", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40456": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Eric Jones", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40457": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sriram Kalyanaraman", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tSundar, S. S., Kalyanaraman, S., & Jones, E. (2000, July). Modality effects on memory for multimedia messages. Paper presented to the Sociology and Social Psychology Division at the 23rd General Assembly and Scientific Conference of the International Association for Media and Communication Research (IAMCR), Singapore.
\n\n\tThe growing importance of the World Wide Web (WWW) offers interesting possibilities for exporing differences between different modalities. While traditional communication research has largely examined the differences between radio and TV, such research has also confounded modality with medium. The computer, on the other hand, offers the unique advantage of being able to combine different modalities such as text, audio, and video within a single medium. Drawing on the Dual Coding Theory (DCT), which suggests that different modalities are processed in separate sub-systems of the brain with the conclusion that two modalities are more memorable than one, this study explored the effects of two modalities (text-audio) versus a single modality (text only) on memory.
\n\n\tBased on the DCT, it was hypothesized that people who were exposed to a message with two modalities would have higher memory scores than people who were exposed to the same message with only a single modality.
\n\n\tThirty-one participants were randomly assigned to one of two conditions (text, text-audio) in a between-participants experiment. Participants were exposed to a motivational message, and equivalence was maintained across both the experimental conditions except that participants in the text-audio condition listened to the message while simultaneously reading it, whereas participants in the text condition read only the message on a computer screen. After message exposure, participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire containing measures of memory.
\n\n\tHypothesis: Supported. An analysis of the data revealed that there was a significant difference in memory between the two experimental conditions. Specifically, participants in the text-audio condition remembered significantly more aspects of the message than did participants in the text-only condition. This can be seen from the graph below, where TA refers to text-audio, and TO refers to text-only.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/modality1.jpg\")
\n\tAn important implication of this study is that the computer can be used to control for medium differences and at the same time explore modality differences. Also, the results indicate that two modalities are preferable to a single modality. This is of enormous practical significance to Web designers as they make decisions regarding the optimal use of multimedia features offered by the new medium.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31059" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-12T23:44:55-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32899, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "62837df8-120c-4212-884c-95f22ed4452c", "siteSettingsId": 32899, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20991, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Projecting community information needs", "slug": "projecting-community-information-needs", "uri": "medialab/research-article/projecting-community-information-needs", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:13-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:08:24-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32899, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/projecting-community-information-needs", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/projecting-community-information-needs", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40438": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Katie M. Blevins", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "40439": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Brian MacAuley", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "40440": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Harry Robinson", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "40441": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Michelle Young", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tDespite the evolving nature of communities, which can be attributed in large part to how new technologies have affected communication within communities, very little research has been done on the influence of these technologies. Less research has been done on the ways new technology could improve communication within communities. Of particular interest is the possible benefit that a local interactive community content could provide. This research systematically explores the relationship between several factors: sense of community, community involvement, digital literacy, right-to-information, perceived information needs, and intent to participate in the community.
\n\n\tTo get specifically at the factors described above, the guiding question of this study is: For community members, what is the relationship between sense of community, digital literacy, right-to-information, and perceived information needs? The exploratory nature of this study means that the researchers chose not to propose a hypothesis, choosing instead to see what information emerged from the analysis of the survey data. The next section will address the methodology used to address this research question.
\n\n\tThis study uses a cross-sectional survey of local community residents to answer the research question. The survey was posted online and the responses of 193 residents, gathered through an email list generated by the dominant employer in the community, were analyzed. The survey consisted of 56 items, most of which were answered on a Likert-type scale. Participants were generally long-term community members above 40 years of age.
\n\n\tOur findings show that there is a predictive relationship between both sense of community and right-to-information (IVs) and perceived information needs (DV), while digital literacy (IV) has no predictive effect.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Blevins_et_al_Figure01.jpg\")
\n\tThe relationships between our main research question variables are made more complex by other variables introduced to measure current levels of community involvement and attendance at community events.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Blevins_et_al_Figure02.jpg\")
\n\tIn particular, right-to-information, perceived information needs and community involvement are all predictive of actual attendance at community events, which was an unanticipated finding of this survey.
\n\n\tRadio, the Internet, and newspapers all proved to be significant antecedent factors for the sense of community, right-to-information, perceived information needs, and community involvement variables. The Internet finding is especially pertinent as it validates the goal of putting community information online. Furthermore, the correlation of sense of community, right-to-information, and community involvement to perceived information needs demonstrates the potential of fostering local community connections by making community information available online.
\n\tThe strong positive relationship between the right to information and perceived information needs suggests that if a person is involved in their community, they are likely involved on several levels. In this particular instance, the need for both types of information suggests involvement politically and socially- fulfilling the role of the \"good\" citizen, as conceptualized by the participatory democracy literature.
\n\tCommunity involvement not only has a positive relationship with perceived information needs, it also moderates sense of community. This moderating influence suggests that community involvement is an essential component of sense of community. The surprise variable in this equation is the likelihood of community attendance which, along with perceived information needs, suggests that an online community calendar could be a positive addition to existing communities.
\n\tThe study found that high community involvement, moderating sense of community, and a high perceived right-to-information increases the likelihood that citizens will want more local information. However, the most important finding of this study is the link between community involvement, right-to-information and perceived information needs to attendance at community events. This relationship is generally a strong positive predictor of citizen’s behavior.
\n\tMay, M. D., Sundar, S. S., & Williams, R. B. (1997, May). The effects of hyperlinks and site maps on the memorability and enjoyability of web content. Paper presented at the 47th annual conference of the International Communication Association (ICA), Montreal, Canada.
\n\n\tThe presence of hyperlinks differentiates World Wide Web (WWW) documents from documents presented using other media. WWW users navigate within and between documents using hyperlinks. However the presence of hyperlinks can also make a website difficult to navigate. This difficulty can probably be alleviated by providing a map of the website. Does this have an effect on the memorability of the website? In addition, does it affect users' enjoyability of Web content? This study attempts to discover the linkage, or lack thereof, between the use of hyperlinks and/or the use of site maps in websites and the memorability and enjoyability of website content.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/hyperlinks1.jpg\")
\n\tPrevious research findings indicate that a site map can help a user navigate through a WWW document, while using fewer mental resources to maintain orientation, and therefore having more mental resources available for memory tasks. This leads to the following hypothesis:
\n\n\tH1: Users exposed to WWW-delivered hypermedia that includes a map of the hypermedia object will have higher scores of recognition memory than users exposed to an identical hypermedia object without the map.
\n\n\tPrevious research findings also suggest that a user exploring a document composed of relational hyperlinks will be more likely to get lost and spend more time navigating, thereby leading to a decrease in memorability of the document. This leads to the following hypothesis:
\n\n\tH2: Users exposed to hypermedia that includes relational hyperlinks will score lower on recognition than users exposed to a document containing identical information without hyperlinks.
\n\n\tThirty-six participants took part in a mixed-design experiment, wherein they browsed one of four websites designed especially for this experiment. The four experimental conditions were: No links and no site map; No links and a site map; Links and no site map and; Links and a site map. Participants were exposed to the relevant condition for a period of 15 minutes. They were allowed to explore the document however they pleased, but their access to the wider Internet from the document was blocked. After exposure, participants were asked to fill out a pencil-and-paper questionnaire, containing items pertaining to recognition as well as enjoyment.
\n\n\tH1: Not Supported. The presence of site maps did not lead to higher recognition memory scores.
\n\n\tH2: Not Supported. The presence of relational hyperlinks did not lead to lower recognition scores.
\n\n\tHowever, an interesting interaction effect was found such that when both site maps and hyperlinks were present or absent from a document, participants tended to have lower story memory scores than when one factor was present and the other was absent.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/hyperlinks2.jpg\")
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/hyperlinks3.jpg\")
\n\tThe negative interaction between the site map and hyperlinks indicates a specific situation a website designer would be wise to avoid, as users encountering such a site would find it less memorable, less enjoyable and more confusing than sites using just hyperlinks or a site map. Also, the findings from this study indicate that website developers should construct and provide a conceptual map of the document, one which depicts how the ideas in the document relate to one another. An important implication is that the prudent website builder should test the nodes he/she is considering introducing into a site to verify that users interact with them in the way he/she intends.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31059" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-12T02:33:24-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32889, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "61c88bd8-3869-4a16-a8f2-d5d9b3ea5385", "siteSettingsId": 32889, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20987, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "News cues: Information scent and cognitive heuristics", "slug": "news-cues-information-scent-and-cognitive-heuristics", "uri": "medialab/research-article/news-cues-information-scent-and-cognitive-heuristics", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:10-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:08:21-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32889, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/news-cues-information-scent-and-cognitive-heuristics", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/news-cues-information-scent-and-cognitive-heuristics", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40421": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Silvia Knobloch-Westerwick", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40422": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Matthias R. Hastall", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis study is published in the Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 58(3), pp. 366-378.
\n\n\tGoogle News and other newsbots have automated the process of news selection, providing Internet users with a virtually limitless array of news and public information dynamically culled from thousands of news organizations all over the world. In order to help users cope with the resultant overload of information, news leads are typically accompanied by three cues: (a) source cue - the name of the primary source from which the headline and lead were borrowed, (b) recency cue - the time elapsed since the story broke, and (c) the number of related articles (NRA) written about this story by other news organizations tracked by the newsbot. This research investigates the psychological significance of these cues. It attempts to understand the nature of user reliance on proximal cues to solve the information overload problem, particularly the role of information scent conveyed by the cues in shaping decision-making about the perceived value of distal information. The research takes a perceptual approach to the issue as opposed to a behavioral one. Grounded in social cognition, this approach makes the fundamental assumption that information scent is processed heuristically than systematically.
\n\n\tThis article suggests that the information scent transmitted by each cue triggers a distinct heuristic (mental shortcut) that tends to influence online users' perceptions of a given news item, with implications for their assessment of the item's relevance to their information needs and interests.
\n\n\tThe source cue in online newsbots may give the impression of a sense of expertise or the lack thereof and thus predicting:
\n\tH1: Message credibility will be higher when the source cue identifies a high credibility news organization rather than when it identifies a low credibility news organization.
\n\tThe number of related articles (NRA), the other source cue triggers the professional expertise heuristic leading to:
\n\tH2: Message credibility will be positively related to the number of related articles identified by the NRA cue.
\n\tThe NRA cue may trigger the bandwagon heuristic, which peaks directly to the relevance criterion, which can affect perceived newsworthiness of the news item as well as the likelihood of clicking the headline to access the full story. Hence the following two hypotheses are proposed.
\n\tH3: Perceived newsworthiness of a news item will be positively related to the number of related articles identified by the NRA cue.
\n\tH4: Perceived likelihood of clicking on a news item will be positively related to the number of related articles identified by the NRA cue.
\n\tThe upload recency cue (indicating the number of minutes or hours since the story broke) can trigger the timeliness heuristic, which can affect evaluations of newsworthiness. Hence,
\n\tH5: The greater the recency of the news item, as identified by the upload recency cue, the higher the perceived newsworthiness of the item.
\n\tSince the three news cues do not appear in isolation on the news site, their combinatory effects are more ecologically informative than their individual effects. Following the logic and rationale of the additivity hypothesis in the social psychological literature on dual-process persuasion models, a cue-cumulation effect can be proposed. Alternatively, a source primacy effect can be proposed by loosely adapting the sufficiency principle based on the notion that online users are cognitive misers. To explore these theoretical propositions, the following research question was formed.
\n\tRQ: What is the relationship among various combinations of the three news cues (source credibility, NRA, and upload recency) and the perceived credibility, newsworthiness and likelihood of clicking on an online news item?
\n\tA large 2 × 3 × 6 within-subjects online experiment (N = 523) systematically varied two levels of the source credibility cue, three levels of the upload recency cue and six levels of the number-of-related-articles cue in an effort to investigate their effects upon perceived message credibility, newsworthiness, and likelihood of clicking on the news lead. Participants were recruited from undergraduate classes at three different universities, one each in the United States, Germany and the Netherlands and the study was conducted online. Participants consenting to take part in the study were first led to a News website which showed a menu of news leads with hyperlinks to full stories as shown in Figure-1.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/JASIST1.png\")
\n\tFigure - 1. Screen shot of the menu of news leads, with the three independent factors indicated
\n\tAfter browsing the news website for five minutes, they were taken to the study instruction page and subsequently to 12 news leads. Each news lead was on a separate page and had a questionnaire asking the subjects to evaluate the news item in the lead. Screen shot of the stimulus page with the news lead and the three manipulated variables are shown in Figure-2.
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/JASIST2.png\")
\n\tFigure - 2. Screen shot of a stimulus page with a news lead containing the three manipulated variables, followed by the battery of independent measures.
\n\n\tThe first hypothesis, which predicted higher message credibility for high-credibility over low-credibility sources, did not receive direct support in our data because the main effect for the Source Credibility cue was not statistically significant. H2 received partial support in that the NRA main effect, while significant, did not show the predicted monotonic linear pattern.
\n\tIn the ANOVA with perceived newsworthiness, the lone significant effect was a main effect for NRA, F (5, 5674) = 21.86, p < .001, such that when the number of related articles was either lowest (single digits) or highest (900+), participants rated the news item as more newsworthy than when it was anywhere in between the two extremes (see Figure 3 and Table 1). This meant partial support for H3.
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/JASIST3.png\")
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/JASIST4.png\")
\n\tThe ANOVA with the perceived-likelihood-of-clicking measure also yielded a single significant effect, again a main effect for NRA, F (10, 5674) = 6.07, p < .001, wherein the extreme and the middle conditions were associated with higher scores than the remaining two conditions (see Figure 3 and Table 1), thus providing partial support for H4.
\n\n\tThe interaction between NRA and source credibility was also significant, F (5, 5674) = 2.32, p < .05. As can be seen in Figure 4, High Source Credibility was associated with higher ratings of message credibility than Low Source Credibility, except when the NRA cue was at its highest point. That is, when the number of related articles is really large (900+), the source credibility cue ceases to influence message credibility.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/JASIST5.png\")
\n\tThe 2-way interaction between source credibility and upload recency, F (2, 5674) = 6.33, p < .01, showed that while message credibility did not vary as a function of upload recency in the case of news items attributed to High Credibility sources, it did show a V-shaped effect in the case of items attributed to Low Credibility sources, with moderate recency registering the lowest score on message credibility (see Figure 5).
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/JASIST6.png\")
\n\tPerceived newsworthiness did not show a significant differentiation as a function of upload recency, F (2, 5674) = 0.06, p > .05, counter to the prediction made by H5.
\n\tIn summary, source credibility emerges as a powerful cue affecting participants’ perception of message credibility. In general, high source-credibility tends to over-ride considerations of recency and number of related articles in dictating one’s perceptions of message credibility. However, when the source credibility is low, these other cues become important in their contributions to our judgment of message credibility. The other consistent finding is that the NRA cue has a clearly bipolar effect pattern, with the extremes (i.e., very few and very large numbers of related articles—single digits and 900+) contributing to higher estimations of message credibility, newsworthiness, and click-likelihood than the intermediate conditions. Upload recency as a cue does not appear to have much of an effect on the perceptions measured in this study.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31059" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-12T02:31:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32881, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "96ce8da0-ba80-4bfb-9c32-3c139df4033b", "siteSettingsId": 32881, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20985, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Are you in the mood for search?", "slug": "are-you-in-the-mood-for-search", "uri": "medialab/research-article/are-you-in-the-mood-for-search", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:09-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:51:05-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32881, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/are-you-in-the-mood-for-search", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/are-you-in-the-mood-for-search", "subtitle": "Study on the relationship between mood and information seeking behavior", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40408": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Mimi Zhang", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40410": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Chung Hun Lee", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40411": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Chen-Ya Wang", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tHuman is emotional. Our affective feelings can shape our perceptions, cognitions and behaviors, which in turn influence the way we process information and make decisions. However, there is no empirical study in the information search field examining what are the exact influences of mood on people's information seeking behavior. The current trend in human information behavior is to study affective computing. Thus, we will fill the gap and follow the trend to study the influence of mood over the information seeking process in the Web environment. We conducted an controlled lab study to test our hypotheses drawn from three theories: affect as information, affect as prime, and mood management. Twenty-nine participants (eleven females and eighteen males) were recruited and randomly assigned to happy or sad condition. In the beginning, they were primed with certai! n mood. After that they performed a search task and finished a series of questionnaire. Our study showed we have successfully manipulated the mood. There was no difference in valence of desired information between happy and sad mood. Only women in happy mood were likely to process more global information. Self-esteem did not mediate the relationship between mood and use of global/local information. Only women in happy mood were likely to use more primes. There was no difference in valence of used prime between happy and sad mood. This is an ongoing study. In the near future, we would hope to get more participants and explore more in-depth on the gender differences.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31059" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-12T02:25:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32875, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "c2a6eba6-5557-497c-a840-8d8437948b0e", "siteSettingsId": 32875, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20983, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Priming effects of accidental exposure to internet pornography:", "slug": "priming-effects-of-accidental-exposure-to-internet-pornography", "uri": "medialab/research-article/priming-effects-of-accidental-exposure-to-internet-pornography", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:08-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:51:20-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32875, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/priming-effects-of-accidental-exposure-to-internet-pornography", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/priming-effects-of-accidental-exposure-to-internet-pornography", "subtitle": "An experimental study of construct accessibility in search engine output", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40395": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sriram Kalyanaraman", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40397": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Chad Mahood", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tKalyanaraman, S., Mahood, C., Sundar, S. S., & Oliver, M. B. (2000, August). Priming effects of accidental exposure to internet pornography: An experimental study of construct accessibility in search engine output. Paper presented to the Communication Technology and Policy Division at the 83rd annual convention of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC), Phoenix, AZ.
\n\n\tGiven the number of Websites on the WWW, many Web developers engage in a practice called spamdexing -- doctoring a Web page to fool search engines into putting it high on a list of search results. Pornography Website developers are particularly guilty of this practice, as even a seemingly innocuous search term such as \"pre-teen\" can result in a list containing explicit pornographic sites. Another prominent device used by Web designers, particularly in the pornography industry, refers to a practice known as mousetrapping -- disabling the Back button on a Web browser to prevent users from escaping the site. When a user is caught in such a trap, he/she might try to escape the page by closing the window, but this often results in another \"pop-up\" window in its place, thus preventing the mouse from escaping. Thus, using the Web as an informational tool requires a tolerance for unexpected--and unavoidable--pornographic material. The preceding discussion is representative of issues related to Internet pornography and search engines. Curiously, the bulk of the debate in this area is fundamentally premised on the assumption that Internet pornography has lasting psychological effects. There appears to be a dominant conviction that exposure to pornography on the Internet, however incidental, will have detrimental effects. However, there is very little empirical evidence to verify such assumptions of media effects in the context of the Internet. The present investigation attempts to make a modest contribution in this direction by empirically investigating the psychological effects of accidental exposure to pornography (or at least a description of it) in the most common of all cyber venues: the search engine
\n\n\tSpecifically, we were interested in examining the following questions: Will participants make judgments about the prevalence of Internet pornography based on the results of a search query?
\n\n\tWill the presence of unexpected search results lead to negative perceptions of the search engine? Will participants tend to negatively perceive people, and events, in the real world based on the results of their search query?
\n\n\tH1a: Participants accidentally exposed to descriptions of pornographic Websites after submitting a search term will have more negative impressions of Internet pornography than those participants exposed to descriptions of non-pornographic Websites.
\n\n\tH1b: Participants accidentally exposed to pornographic descriptions will rate the Internet as having a higher percentage of pornographic Websites than those participants exposed to non-pornographic descriptions.
\n\n\tH2: Participants accidentally exposed to pornographic descriptions upon submitting a search term unrelated to pornography will evince greater negative impressions of the search engine than those participants who are exposed to non-pornographic descriptions upon submitting the same search term.
\n\n\tH3: Participants accidentally exposed to descriptions of pornographic Websites will have significantly higher negative perceptions of the world, and people, in general, compared to those participants exposed to non-pornographic descriptions.
\n\n\tNinety-three participants in a between-participants experiment were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions. Both male and female participants were exposed to one of three versions of a search engine Website, manipulated to display either \"No,\" \"Moderate,\" or \"High\" number of pornography-related search results. After participants were exposed to the search results, their evaluation of the search engine as well as their perceptions of Internet pornography and social reality were measured through a series of questions administered via a paper-and-pencil questionnaire.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/engine1.jpg\")
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/engine2.jpg\")
\n\tOne way analyses of variance revealed that although most of the results were in the hypothesized direction, some of the findings did not exhibit a statistically significant difference between \"high\" and \"moderate\" porn conditions. Perhaps, this can be attributed to the fact that even the presence of a few descriptions can prime thoughts related to that concept. The general trend suggests that the data can be interpreted better when both the medium and high pornography conditions are combined. Such a combination also affords a more robust explanation for priming and accessibility effects, since the differences are now restricted solely to \"Primed\" (Porn) versus \"Non-primed\" (No-porn). Like before, we performed a series of analyses to test for significance between the two conditions.
\n\n\tH1a: Supported. Participants in the porn condition had a significantly greater negative perceptions of Internet pornography than did those participants in the no-porn condition.
\n\n\tH1b: Supported. Participants in the porn condition estimated a significantly higher percentage of pornographic Websites as existing on the Internet compared to participants in the no-porn condition.
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/engine4.jpg\")
\n\tH2: Supported. Participants who were exposed to no pornographic descriptions rated the search engine as significantly more efficient than participants who were exposed to pornographic descriptions.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/engine4_(1).jpg\")
\n\tH3: Supported. Specifically, participants in the porn condition rated the world to be significantly meaner than did participants in the no-porn condition.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/engine5.jpg\")
\n\tResults of this study suggest that even some exposure to Internet pornography (in this case, a description of Websites as a result of search engine manipulation) results in significantly more negative perceptions of not only Internet pornography, but also the Internet in general, as evidenced by the tendency among participants in the porn conditions to rate the search engine less favorably (particularly less efficient) than participants in the no-porn condition. The overall findings reported here offer strong evidence for priming effects and the operation of construct accessibility. Thus, even a simple manipulation of Website content can have profound theoretical, psychological, and policy consequences.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31059" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-10T23:35:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32867, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "e51e394c-34b0-4c35-a53c-9e55b71980c7", "siteSettingsId": 32867, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20981, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Using exemplars to motivate philanthropic behavior:", "slug": "using-exemplars-to-motivate-philanthropic-behavior", "uri": "medialab/research-article/using-exemplars-to-motivate-philanthropic-behavior", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:06-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:51:36-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32867, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/using-exemplars-to-motivate-philanthropic-behavior", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/using-exemplars-to-motivate-philanthropic-behavior", "subtitle": "A test of charitable appeal strategies", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40382": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Virginia Harrison", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "40384": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Ryan Wetzel", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "40386": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Andong Cheng", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tWith so many organizations relying on philanthropic funds to operate, maximizing the generosity of donors is important to the survival of many causes and people they aid. This paper seeks to inform these organizations and advance theory on philanthropic behavior by testing what motivates donors to respond positively to appeal letters for charitable organizations. This paper focuses on how a written appeal can be framed to evoke the maximum sympathy and intention to help from possible donors who organizations are sending appeals to every day.
\n\n\tRQ 1: For individuals, controlling for demographics, income, prior philanthropy attitudes, and appeal format/length, what is the relationship between the advocate exemplar in an appeal, the recipient exemplar in the appeal, and post-stimuli attitudes for philanthropic behavior?
\n\n\tThis research is a between subjects experimental design ran in a classroom with voluntary participants using a questionnaire. The study contains data from 105 participants, all undergraduate students ranging from ages 18-22. Participants are asked about their previous attitudes about a targeted charity, and then they view one of four possible appeal letters that describes the recipient as either an exemplar or a cause and the advocate exemplar as either a famous philanthropist or a layperson. After seeing the stimuli appeal letter and passing a manipulation check for the independent variables, the participants answer questions concerning their post-attitudes toward the charitable organization.
\n\n\tThere is a three-way interaction between the independent variables advocate exemplar type, recipient type, and previous attitudes towards a targeted charity when predicting post-stimuli positive attitudes for the cause. Previous attitudes towards the charity works as a moderator and the interaction is highly significant when predicting future intentions to help out the charity, with F(1,97)=17.49 (p<.01) and sympathy towards the charity, with F(1,97)=7.25 (p<.05).Thus, this study finds through a general linear model that for those with high pre-attitudes towards a targeted charity, an expert advocate exemplar in the appeal leads to post-stimuli attitudes of intention to help and empathy/sympathy when the recipient exemplar is a cause; a similar exemplar advocate leads to post-stimuli attitudes of intention to help and empathy/sympathy when the recipient exemplar is an individual.
\n\n\tThis research’s findings have important theoretical implications for philanthropic behavior and practical implications for those in the fundraising industry. As a highlight for theoretical implications, this paper contributes to the persuasion literation, focusing on how to maximize people’s positive attitudes towards a charity when it comes to philanthropic behavior. As for practical implications, this study has important implications for fundraisers and those who work for organizations that rely on philanthropy to operate as every organization uses email or letter appeals to motivate its constituents to donate money or time to the organization to support its mission or cause. Understanding what characteristics in written appeals motivate donors the most is crucial to the success of the appeal message in getting the reader to engage philanthropically with the organization.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31061" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-10T23:29:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32859, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "3567ccc1-e511-4818-a5c3-bb0b4f6c4d9f", "siteSettingsId": 32859, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20979, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Does sociability make a difference?", "slug": "does-sociability-make-a-difference", "uri": "medialab/research-article/does-sociability-make-a-difference", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:05-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:51:47-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32859, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/does-sociability-make-a-difference", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/does-sociability-make-a-difference", "subtitle": "The effect of HCI and CMC interactivity on user engagement and web attitude", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40356": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Yan Huang", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40358": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Ariel Johnson", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "40365": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Zhiyao Ye", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThe growth of sophisticated interactive website features has placed interactivity on a priority research agenda across disciplines. There are two dimensions of interactivity: Human computer interaction (HCI) and computer-mediated communication (CMC). From the cue-effects perspective, the research examines the different effects of HCI and CMC interactivity on user engagement and web attitudes, and the role of sociability and gender. Ninety-nine undergraduate students participated in a lab experiment using designed (MovieHulix) web stimuli with four interactivity conditions.
\n\n\tRQ1: For internet users, controlling for gender and sociability, what is the relationship between types of interactivity and level of perceived interactivity/user engagement/ user attitude?
\n\tH1: Users in the CMC condition will perceive a higher level of interactivity than users in the HCI condition will.
\n\tH2: Users in the CMC condition will be more engaged than users in the HCI condition will.
\n\tH3: Users in the CMC condition will have more positive attitudes towards the website than users in the HCI condition will.
\n\tH4: The higher the level of perceived interactivity, the higher the level of user engagement.
\n\tH5: The higher the level of user engagement, the more positive the user attitude.
\n\tH6: The higher the level of perceived interactivity, the more positive the user attitude.
\n\tH7a: Users’ sociability moderates the effects of interactivity on perceived interactivity.
\n\tH7b: Users’ sociability moderates the effects of interactivity on user engagement.
\n\tH7c: Users’ sociability moderates the effects of interactivity on user engagement.
\n\tH8a: Gender moderates the effects of interactivity on perceived interactivity.
\n\tH8b: Gender moderates the effects of interactivity on user engagement.
\n\tH8c: Gender moderates the effects of interactivity on user attitude towards the website.
\n\tIn order to answer our research question and test our hypotheses, we conducted a 2 (absence vs. presence of HCI) × 2 (absence vs. presence of CMC) between-subjects experiment, wherein each participant was randomly assigned to one of the four conditions (place Figures 2-5 here) and exposed to one web page pertaining to six newly released movies in different formats. Participant ages ranged from 18-45, average age 22.3. The sample was mostly Caucasian students a total of 54 males and 45 females.
\n\n\tIn sum, we found that perceived interactivity is highly related to appearance of comment function instead of appearance of hyperlinks. Participants perceived higher levels of interactivity when they were exposed to comment function, but our results failed to show the effects of hyperlinks.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/ArielFigure6.jpg\")
\n\tMales showed more interest in hyperlinks while females were more engaged to the comment function.
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/ArielFigure7.jpg\")
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/ArielFigure9.jpg\")
\n\tFurther, we concluded that gender and sociability are two important moderators in the relationship between interactivity and user engagement and their attitudes toward the website.
\n\n\t
\n\tAlso, people who were more sociable showed a more positive attitude in all conditions except HCI × CMC condition. Moreover, the results indicated that in the in the highest level of interactivity condition, wherein both hyperlinks and comment function were offered, our participants did not perceive the highest level of interactivity nor reported the highest level of engagement, and also did not give the best evaluation of our web site.
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/ArielFigure11.jpg\")
\n\tThe goal of this study was to explore the relationship between interactivity, perceived interactivity, and user attitude/engagement. The results of this research present the opportunity for several theoretical and practical implications. First of which, this research contributes to existing scholarship by examining sociability as a moderator for the aforementioned variables. This study lends support to the existing data that indicate gender differences in attitudes toward interactive technological features. The results of this study have practical implication for web designers to consider gender and extraversion levels of target audiences in order to ensure optimal user experience. Future research should expound upon the limitations of this study and continue to consider personal characteristics as a moderator for interactivity on perceived interactivity, engagement, and web attitude.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31061" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-10T23:26:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32849, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "e554d7ed-486e-45fa-bfa4-f117ec91d600", "siteSettingsId": 32849, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20977, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Interactivity cues:", "slug": "interactivity-cues", "uri": "medialab/research-article/interactivity-cues", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:03-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:51:53-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32849, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/interactivity-cues", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/interactivity-cues", "subtitle": "A study of the effects of presence and use", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40342": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Alyssa Appelman", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40343": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Youngjoon Choi", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40344": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Ashley Han", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40345": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Bo Zhang", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tIn recent years, as both computing power and the ability to share media over the Internet have increased, there has been a booming interest in new modes of media consumption and interaction. In particular, there has been a rise in interest in the possibilities of interactive online environments. While such interactive environments have been utilized in many areas, they have show particular promise in being used to create virtual tourism experiences which offer people from around the world convenient access to remote tourist destinations that might otherwise be unavailable to them.
\n\n\tOur main interest is to explore the effects of presence of visual interactivity cues (interface elements that imply interactivity visually) and actual use of interactivity function on user experience during interaction, perceptions of the content and website, and information processing type.
\n\n\tRQ1: For virtual travel site users, controlling for content, what is the relationship between interactivity mode (control, cues, and actions) and user experience?
\n\n\tH1a: Interactivity action and interactivity cues will lead to a higher level of perceived interactivity than the control group.
\n\n\tH1b: Interactivity action will lead to a higher level of disorientation than interactivity cues and the control group.
\n\n\tH1c: Interactivity action will lead to a higher level of telepresence than interactivity cues and the control group.
\n\n\tH2a: Interactivity action and interactivity cues will lead to a higher level of attitude toward the content than the control group.
\n\n\tH2b: Interactivity action and interactivity cues will lead to a higher level of attitude toward the website than the control group.
\n\n\tH3a: Interactivity action and interactivity cues will lead to a higher level of behavioral intention toward the content than the control group.
\n\n\tH3b: Interactivity action and interactivity cues will lead to a higher level of behavioral intention toward the website than the control group.
\n\n\tH4a: Interactivity action will lead to more systematic processing than interactivity cues.
\n\n\tH4b: Interactivity cues will lead to more heuristic processing than interactivity action.
\n\n\tIn order to examine the role that interactivity cues plays in users' experience of online virtual tourist site, an experimental lab study was conducted using students from a major American university as participants. There were three conditions in the experiment: control, cues, and action conditions.
\n\tUpon arrival at the computer laboratory, participants were welcomed and asked to read and fill out a paper consent form. After they agreed to participate, participants in the action condition were told that they would be exploring a new travel website for three minutes, and participants in the control/cues conditions were told they would be watching a video demonstration of a new travel website for three minutes. All three groups were told they would be filling out an online questionnaire after the three minutes, and they were given instructions for using the computer and mouse. They also were informed that they could decide to stop participating at any time during the experiment. All of the participants in all of the conditions received the instructions from the same researcher. After the oral instructions, participants were instructed to sit down at one of the computer terminals.
\n\tThe participants then either explored the stimulus website or watched the video demonstration. After the three minutes, researchers walked to each computer, closed the website or video, and opened the online questionnaire containing measures of the aforementioned dependent and control variables. Once participants had finished both the stimulus exposure and the questionnaire, they were thanked and dismissed. After all the experimental sessions were completed, the participants were debriefed in their class.
\n\n\tIn summary, participants in both the cue and action conditions had a higher level of perceived interactivity than those in the control condition. Also, participants who actually used the cues were more disoriented than those who just saw the cues. However, there were no differences between the cue and action conditions in terms of content and website perceptions. According to the power analysis, the ANOVAs had enough participants to reject medium and large effect sizes, but not enough to reject a small effect size. Also, perceived interactivity was positively associated with website perceptions, and telepresence was moderately related to users’ behavioral intention toward the website. In terms of cognitive processing, participants in the cue condition used more heuristic processing than those in the action condition, but there was no difference for systematic processing.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/achz_f1.png\")
\n\tThe results showed that users who viewed tutorial with cues and users who actual used the interface exhibited the same level of perceived interactivity, and both were higher than control group. Therefore, this study suggests that travel website designers should pay attention to their cues. For website promotion in particular, the design of the cues themselves seems to be as important as their functionality. For travel website users, this study suggests that video tutorials may be a better way of learning about a tourist destination online. In addition, cues group showed more heuristic processing than the action condition, letting empirical support for the MAIN model.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31061" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-10T23:24:51-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32841, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "68affe42-ded1-4b85-ac06-3889e9a79ce6", "siteSettingsId": 32841, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20975, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Communicating art, virtually! Psychological effects of technological affordances in a virtual museum", "slug": "communicating-art-virtually-psychological-effects-of-technological-affordan", "uri": "medialab/research-article/communicating-art-virtually-psychological-effects-of-technological-affordan", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:01-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:08:04-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32841, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/communicating-art-virtually-psychological-effects-of-technological-affordan", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/communicating-art-virtually-psychological-effects-of-technological-affordan", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40325": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Eun Go", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40327": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Hyang-Sook Kim", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40332": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Bo Zhang", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tMuseums all over the world are incorporating interactive technologies to engage both physical visitors and virtual visitors. While exhibits in physical museums are becoming increasingly interactive, those in virtual museums use a variety of communication technologies to afford an authentic museum experience to online visitors. In this study, we examine whether three specific affordances of communication technology—customization, interactivity, and navigability—can provide the personal, social, and physical contexts, respectively, that are necessary for ensuring an enjoyable museum experience.
\n\n\tIn a virtual, online museum, users could be provided the freedom to control their actions and the process of art appreciation as they are in real, offline museum settings, by leveraging the various technological features available these days. Users are able to not only choose the way they navigate the website, but also create their own collection by gathering their favorite artworks, as well as adding their own comments about the artworks to the collection. Thus, we proposed the following hypotheses and research questions:
\n\n\tH1: The presence of customization in a virtual museum website will lead to greater levels of a) sense of agency, b) perceived control, c) user engagement with content, d) positive attitudes toward the website, and e) satisfaction with experience on the site.
\n\n\tH2: The presence of live chat in a virtual museum website will lead to greater levels of a) perceived reciprocity b) perceived synchronicity, c) perceived social presence, d) positive attitudes toward the website, and e) satisfaction with the site.
\n\n\tH3: The presence of a 3D navigation tool in a virtual museum will lead to greater levels of a) spatial presence b) perceived reality, d) positive attitudes toward website, and e) satisfaction with the site.
\n\n\tH4: The technological affordances of customization, live chatting and navigability in a virtual museum site will lead to more positive psychological outcomes among power users than non-power users.
\n\n\tRQ1: How does the presence of 3D navigation tool affect the perceived usability of a virtual museum website?
\n\n\tRQ2: Are there interaction effects among three different technology affordances on psychological outcomes related to user experience of a virtual museum website?
\n\n\tWe employed a 2 (presence vs. absence of customizable gallery) x 2 (presence vs. absence of live-chat with others) x 2 (presence vs. absence of 3-D navigational tool) fully-crossed factorial between-participants controlled laboratory experiment, with participants‘ level of power usage as a moderating variable. All participants (N=126) at a large U.S. university were randomly assigned to one of eight versions of a virtual version of New York City‘s Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), available through Google Art Project (http://www.googleartproject.com/). After the instruction, they explored the stimulus museum website to complete the assigned tasks, After the completion of the recommendation task, they were asked to fill out a questionnaire containing questions regarding their absorption, attitudes and satisfaction toward the interface.
\n\n\tThe results showed that each affordance is associated with distinct psychological benefits (customization with sense of agency and control, interactivity with reciprocity, and navigability with perceived reality). Specifically, Interactivity promotes perceived reciprocity and reality of user experience, navigability (3-D navigational tool) decreases users’ sense of control, and interactivity hinders navigability’s positive effect on perceived reality. Combining all three affordances in one interface undermines their respective benefits. In addition, power usage moderates the effectiveness of each affordance on the interface.
\n\n\tThe effect of our operationalizations of the three affordances on user experience is anything but straightforward. While live-chatting contributed to perceived reciprocity and social presence, the 3-D navigational tool seemed to undermine users‘ sense of control over the interface. On the other hand, the enhancement in perceived reality of the museum experience caused by the 3D tool was hindered by the inclusion of live-chat in the study protocol although live chat, by itself, promoted the greatest level of the perceived reality. In sum, there appears to be a conflict between the navigability and interactivity tools on specific aspects of user experience. From a design standpoint, these findings argue against the common tendency among site developers to keeping adding more features. The deployment of affordances has to be strategic, keeping in mind the specific objectives of the site.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31061" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-10T23:20:35-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32833, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "065992ef-a365-42f2-a8cf-4dc2c02e3bef", "siteSettingsId": 32833, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20973, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The impact of navigability on flow-like experiences and user enjoyment of online art exhibitions", "slug": "the-impact-of-navigability-on-flow-like-experiences-and-user-enjoyment-of-o", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-impact-of-navigability-on-flow-like-experiences-and-user-enjoyment-of-o", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:28:00-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:08:01-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32833, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-impact-of-navigability-on-flow-like-experiences-and-user-enjoyment-of-o", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-impact-of-navigability-on-flow-like-experiences-and-user-enjoyment-of-o", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40312": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Youngjoon Choi", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40314": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Michael Marcinkowski", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40316": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Bo Zhang", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tIn recent years, as both computing power and the ability to share media over the Internet have increased, there has been a booming interest in new modes of media consumption and interaction. In particular, there has been a rise in interest in the possibilities of 3D environments. While such 3D environments have been utilized in many areas, they have shown particular promises in being used to create virtual museum experiences which offer people from around the world convenient access to museums and artworks that might otherwise be unavailable to them.
\n\n\tOne major concern for such interfaces is their level of navigability, referring to the degrees of freedom of movement an interface offers to users as they interact with content. Using the theoretical concepts of flow-like experience and immersion, this paper examines the effects of differences in degrees of navigability on user enjoyment and their intention toward future use of the system.
\n\n\tRQ: For Internet users, controlling for age, gender, Internet use, previous experience with the interface, and general art interest, what is the relationship between the level of navigability and the level of user enjoyment and behavioral intention?
\n\n\tRQa: What is the relationship between the level of navigability and the level of flow-like experiences (skill-challenge match and immersion)?
\n\n\tRQb: What is the relationship between the level of flow-like experiences (skill-challenge match and immersion) and the level of enjoyment and behavioral intention?
\n\n\tIn order to examine the role that navigability plays in users' experience of online virtual art exhibitions, an experimental lab study was conducted using students from a major American university as participants. There were two conditions in the experiment: a high navigability environment and a low navigability environment.
\n\n\tUsing a modified version of the Google Art Project (http://www.googleartproject.com/), participants were randomly assigned to use either a highly navigable 3D environment to browse a collection of paintings from the Museum of Modern Art, or they were offered a simpler, less navigable 2D interface which allowed them to simply flip through the images. Each participant was given a few simple tasks to complete using the interface. Following their use of the system, participants filled out a questionnaire about their experience of the system. This questionnaire was designed to measure their experience of both a skill-challenge match and their sense of immersion, both of which are seen as contributing to a flow-like experience. Additionally, the questionnaire captured their evaluation of the user experience.
\n\n\tOverall, we found that participants in both the high navigability and low navigability conditions reported enjoying their use of the online art exhibition. Somewhat surprisingly, those participants assigned to the low navigability condition reported higher levels of enjoyment than those in the high navigability condition. The effect of the level of navigability on the degree of enjoyment was found to be mediated by the degree of immersion in the online exhibition. In this, those in the low navigability condition reported higher levels of immersion, as well as higher levels of enjoyment. Further, higher levels of reported enjoyment were positively correlated with higher levels of reported behavioral intention toward future use and recommendation.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Bo_et_al..png\")
\n\tWhile a connection between a high level of navigability and a high degree of a sense of skill-challenge match was found to be significant, there was no significant correlation between the level of reported skill-challenge match and the degree of enjoyment. As such, it appears that in the case of an interactive online experience, the effects of navigability on a user's sense of enjoyment is mediated by a sense of immersion, but not by the larger construct of a flow-like experience such as would be constituted in part by a feeling of a skill-challenge match.
\n\n\tFinding that interfaces with higher navigability poses interesting challenges to software designers and others who may have a stake in developing applications that utilize highly navigable 3D environments. While conventional wisdom would have it that highly navigable 3D environments would result in higher levels of immersion and enjoyment, our findings contradict such notions and point to the challenges that navigable environments pose. In particular, in addition to open up further paths for research, this study reinforces the notion that the type of interface used must be determined by the task for which it is intended.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31061" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-10T23:17:17-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32827, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "d757a8c1-fc88-46c3-bebd-cf80fde9ec31", "siteSettingsId": 32827, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20971, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "What works better: humorous vs. non-humorous television programs for effective promotion", "slug": "what-works-better-humorous-vs-non-humorous-television-programs-for-effecti", "uri": "medialab/research-article/what-works-better-humorous-vs-non-humorous-television-programs-for-effecti", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:27:59-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:07:58-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32827, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/what-works-better-humorous-vs-non-humorous-television-programs-for-effecti", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/what-works-better-humorous-vs-non-humorous-television-programs-for-effecti", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40298": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Ashley Han", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40299": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Elise Stevens", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tToday, viewers are tuning in to late-night comedy programs to watch interviews of celebrities. Various studies have shown that humor can enhance a consumer’s attitude toward a brand, attention and recall, credibility of the source, evaluation, and purchase intention for the product (Cho, 1995; Alden, Mukherjee, & Hoyer, 2000). Research has also shown that comedy has been a beneficial way to sell products, however, we do not know if it is as effective for celebrity promotion. This study explores whether humor is a factor that could influence audiences’ perceived credibility, attitude towards the interviewee, and purchase intention.
\n\n\tRQ1: For college students, controlling for demographics, what is the relationship between attitude toward the show and the perceived credibility of the interviewee?
\n\n\tRQ2: For college students, controlling for demographics, what is the relationship between attitude toward the show and attitude toward the interviewee?
\n\n\tRQ3: For college students, controlling for demographics, what is the relationship between attitude towards the show and purchase intention of the product?
\n\n\tRQ4: For college students, controlling for demographics, what is the relationship between personality, type of show, and perceived credibility?
\n\n\tRQ5: For college students, controlling for demographics what is the relationship between personality, type of show, and attitudes towards the interviewee?
\n\n\tRQ6: For college students, controlling for demographics what is the relationship between personality, type of show, and purchase intention of the product?
\n\n\tH1: People will have a more positive attitude toward the humorous show than the non-humorous show.
\n\n\tH2: People will perceive higher credibility towards celebrities on a humorous show than a non-humorous show.
\n\n\tH3: People will have a more positive attitude towards the celebrity on the humorous show than the non-humorous show.
\n\n\tH4: People will have a higher purchase intention for the product promoted in the humorous show than in the non-humorous show.
\n\n\tA two-condition, between-groups online experiment was conducted. All participants (N = 37) were invited to participate in one of the two experimental sessions: one with a humorous television show and the other with a non-humorous television show, depending on the condition to which they were randomly assigned to at the experimental sessions. Linear regression, one-way ANOVA and factorial ANOVA were performed to answer the research questions and test research hypothesis.
\n\n\tThe results of factorial ANOVA showed that there was a statistically significant relationship between a serious personality and perceived credibility towards the interviewee, F (1, 21) = 8.27, p< .05. Moreover, the interaction between a more serious personality and type of the show was shown to have a significant relationship on perceived credibility towards the interviewee, F (1, 21) = 4.45, p< .05, as indicated in Table 1.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/ashley_et_al..png\")
\n\tThe results also showed a statistically significant relationship between a more serious personality and attitude towards the interviewee, F (1, 21) = 10.44, p< .05. The main effect of a more serious personality was shown statistically significant with purchase intention, F (1, 21) = 5.61, p< .05. The results of one-way ANOVA showed the relationship between the type of show and attitude towards the show was statistically significant, F (1, 35) = 59.12, p< .001, indicating that participants have more positive attitude towards humorous shows than non-humorous show. Thus, H1 was supported. However, no significant relationship was shown between the type of show and perceived credibility, attitude towards the interviewee, and purchase intention of the product. Thus, H2, H3, and H4 were not supported.
\n\n\tThe most significant inference from the current study is that humor plays an important part in influencing viewers’ attitude toward the show. When disregarding the content of the show, humorous shows seem to generate more positive attitude among audiences than non-humorous shows. In addition, personality as a moderator also affects people’s perceptions of the interviewee, in terms of perceived credibility, attitude towards the interviewee, and purchase intention of the product promoted in the television show.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31061" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-10T23:11:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32817, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "a41c7ab2-1594-42c5-a4bf-f65656b8df28", "siteSettingsId": 32817, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20969, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Media device effect", "slug": "media-device-effect", "uri": "medialab/research-article/media-device-effect", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:27:55-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:52:09-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32817, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/media-device-effect", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/media-device-effect", "subtitle": "A study on gratifications obtained from tv program watching", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40276": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jennifer Fyock", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40277": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sharon Santus", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40278": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Yuan Sun", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "40280": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Yong Tang", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tToday, more and more “couch potatoes” are becoming “Internet potatoes.” Many tech-savvy viewers even watch TV in a fancier way: on personal digital assistants (PDAs) and MP3 players. By employing the uses and gratifications theory, a large body of literature has explored how people may differ in their gratification level when using different media devices. No scholars, however, have investigated the change of TV viewers’ gratifications obtained from watching TV programs on different media devices. Furthermore, interactivity has never been used as a factor to measure gratification.
\n\n\tThe purpose of this study is to explore whether watching television programs on a TV provides different types of gratifications (five gratification factors include past time, escapism, entertainment, information seeking and interactivity. See table 1, factor loadings of gratifications obtained of watching TV programs) than watching TV programs on a computer/Internet, PDA or MP3 player. The secondary purpose is to explore whether genre preference (drama, comedy, new, sports and sex video/pornography) for TV programs make a difference in the gratifications obtained.
\n\n\tRQ1: For TV program viewers, controlling for age, gender and other demographic information, time spent on watching TV programs & Internet connectivity, what is the relationship between type of media device and level of gratifications obtained?
\n\tRQ2: For TV program viewers, controlling for age, gender and other demographic information, time spent on watching TV programs and Internet connectivity, what is the relationship between type of TV program genre and level of gratifications obtained?
\n\tA questionnaire was loaded onto LimeSurvey, an open source survey application hosted on Penn State University’s Web server. An email message including a link to the web survey was sent out. This resulted in a snowballing effect of respondents. The survey took about ten minutes to complete. 114 participants completed the questionnaire. Then all the data was uploaded to Jump, a statistical software for expert data analysis.
\n\n\tThe Computer/Internet was a significant predictor of pass time as a gratification obtained. A preference for watching TV programs on the TV was significant as negative predictor of escapism as a gratification obtained. A preference for watching TV programs on the Computer/Internet was a significant predictor of escapism as a gratification obtained. A preference for watching TV programs on a MP3 player was a significant predictor of escapism as a gratification obtained. Watching TV programs on the Computer/Internet was a predictor of interactivity as a gratification obtained.
\n\n\tPeople with low TV preference consistently scored higher than people with high TV preference across four out of the five gratification factors. People with high computer/Internet preference consistently scored higher than people with low computer/Internet preference across four out of the five gratification factors.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/mediadevicegrats_clip_image002.png\")
\n\tPeople who prefer watching comedy obtained more gratifications from interactivity. People who prefer watching news had more gratifications from information seeking. People with a preference for watching sex video/porn obtained more gratifications from information seeking. People who prefer watching TV on MP3 players obtained more gratifications from escapism. People who prefer to watch TV on the Internet obtained more gratifications from pastime. People preferring watching TV on the Internet had higher gratifications from interactivity. People with low TV preference received more pastime, escapism, information seeking and interactivity gratification. People with high computer/Internet preference received more pastime, escapism, information seeking and interactivity gratification as well.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31061" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-10T20:35:33-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32813, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "e3844117-f7d5-49e0-aa9f-76b2e38db772", "siteSettingsId": 32813, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20967, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Effects of interactivity, animation, and ad shape on attitudes toward imus", "slug": "effects-of-interactivity-animation-and-ad-shape-on-attitudes-toward-imus", "uri": "medialab/research-article/effects-of-interactivity-animation-and-ad-shape-on-attitudes-toward-imus", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:27:54-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:07:52-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32813, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/effects-of-interactivity-animation-and-ad-shape-on-attitudes-toward-imus", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/effects-of-interactivity-animation-and-ad-shape-on-attitudes-toward-imus", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40269": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jinhee Kim", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tSundar, S. S. & Kim, J. (2004, May). Interactivity and persuasion: Influencing attitudes with information and involvement. Paper presented to the Communication and Technology division at the 54th annual convention of the International Communication Association (ICA), New Orleans, LA.
\n\n\tInteractivity effects have been largely tested with computers and Websites but not yet with online advertisements. The recent arrival of interactive messaging/marketing units (IMUs) seems to provide a real ground for testing persuasive effects of advertisement interactivity. The present investigation systematically varied the levels of interactivity in IMUs, and tracked both the direct effects of interactivity on user attitudes and the combinatory effects of interactivity with animation and ad shape, two common variables in IMUs.
\n\n\tInteractivity
\n\tThe present study operationalized three levels of advertisement interactivity based on the Rafaeli’s (1988) contingency model of interactivity. Previous studies have shown that interactivity promotes user engagement with content and favorable evaluations toward Web sites. This leads to the following hypotheses:
\n\tH1: Higher the level of ad interactivity, greater its perceived interactivity.
\n\tH2: Higher the level of ad interactivity, more positive the attitudes toward the ad (Aad).
\n\tH3: Higher the level of ad interactivity, more positive the attitudes toward the product.
\n\tAnimation
\n\tAs a formal feature of the new medium, animation has proven to be powerful tool for generating desirable advertising effects: higher arousal, positive attitude toward both the ads and the Website, better memory for ad content, etc. This leads to the following hypotheses:
\n\tH4: Animated ads will be rated higher in attitude toward the ad than static ads.
\n\tH5: Animated ads will generate more positive attitudes toward the product than static ads.
\n\tAd Shape
\n\tWeb ads appear in numerous formats, but IMUs usually happen to be in one of two formats – banner and big-box (a large square ad). Paucity of research investigating this variable prompts us to pose the following research question:
\n\tRQ1: For IMU users, what is the relationship between shape of the ad (banner vs. square) and user attitudes toward the ads as well as the products advertised?
\n\n\tCombination Effects
\n\tIf interactivity, animation, and ad shape are peripheral cues, then they are likely to aid heuristic processing of ad information. Further, multiple peripheral cues would be more powerful than single ones in promoting the persuasive ability of online ads. Given this, the following prediction was generated:
\n\tH6: Interactivity, Animation, and Ad Shape will have additive effects on user attitudes toward the ads as well as the products advertised.
\n\n\tAll participants (N = 48) in a 3 (Interactivity: Low, Medium, High) x 2 (Animation: Static, Animated) x 2 (Ad Shape: Banner, Square) experiment design were exposed to 12 Web pages containing news articles, with each page containing a stimulus ad. They saw one of three different samples of stimulus ads in one of four orders. After browsing through each Web page for a maximum of 90 seconds, they filled out a paper-and-pencil questionnaire eliciting their attitudes toward the ad and the product advertised in it.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/imu1.jpg\")
\n\tH1: Supported. Low-interactive ads were rated the lowest on perceived interactivity, whereas high-interactive ads were rated significantly higher, with medium-interactive ones falling in between the two on this measure.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/imu3.jpg\")
\n\tH2: Supported. Low-interactive ads were rated lowest on attitude toward the ad and high-interactive ones rated significantly more positive, with medium-interactive ads falling in between the two on this measure.
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/imu4.jpg\")
\n\tH3: Supported. Participants reported that the low-interactive ads led to the least level of perceived product knowledge, significantly lower than medium- and high-interactive ads. In addition, participants rated low-interactive ads lowest on product involvement, high-interactive ads significantly higher, with medium-interactive ads falling in between the two.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/imu5.jpg\")
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/imu6.jpg\")
\n\tH4: Supported. Participants showed more positive attitude toward animated ads than static ads.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/imu7.jpg\")
\n\tH5: Not Supported. Participants reported a higher level of perceived product knowledge and product involvement for static ads than for animated ads.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/imu8.jpg\")
\n\tH6: Partially Supported. The two-way interactions between animation and ad shape reveal additive consequences, with animated square ads being most successful in contributing to positive attitude toward ads (Figure 1). In addition, the two-way interactions between animation and interactivity showed that the relative advantage enjoyed by animated over static ads in promoting attitude toward ads (Figure 2). However, high interactivity appears to be an overpowering peripheral cue that negates the relative advantage of animated ads over static ads
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/imu10.jpg\")
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/imu11.jpg\")
\n\tRQ1: Participants showed more positive attitudes toward square ads than banner ads. Similarly, they reported higher level of product involvement for square ads than for banner ads. However, participants reported a higher level of perceived product knowledge for banner ads than for square ads.
\n\n\tThe present study shows that interactivity is a strong cue aiding the persuasive function of online ads. This means that the contingency-based conceptualization of interactivity is applicable not just to Web sites but also to Web advertisements. Animation is an important cue that positively influence attitude toward the ad but negatively affects perceived product knowledge and product involvement, suggesting the distractive potential of animation. It is also found that the effects of peripheral cues are not always additive. More importantly, it appears that ad interactivity enhances user involvement with product by providing more product information hence leads to more positive evaluations. This ability stands in striking contrast to most other formal features (e.g., animation or ad shape), which tend to be, at least perceptually, more cosmetic and less informational.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31061" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-10T20:29:20-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32805, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "456aff68-b572-4f5c-89fb-b946f7c2fce6", "siteSettingsId": 32805, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20965, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The effect of website interactivity on political persuasion", "slug": "the-effect-of-website-interactivity-on-political-persuasion", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-effect-of-website-interactivity-on-political-persuasion", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:27:53-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:07:50-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32805, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-effect-of-website-interactivity-on-political-persuasion", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-effect-of-website-interactivity-on-political-persuasion", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40254": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Kenneth M. Hesser", "degreeCandidacy": "B.A." } }, "40255": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Justin Brown", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40256": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sriram Kalyanaraman", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tSundar, S. S., Hesser, K. M., Kalyanaraman, S., & Brown, J. (1998, July). The effect of website interactivity on political persuasion. Paper presented to the Social Psychology Division at the 21st General Assembly and Scientific Conference of the International Association for Media and Communication Research (IAMCR), Glasgow, UK.
\n\n\tRecent years have seen an increase in voter cynicism leading to a gradual loss in voters' psychological affinity for their political representatives. This trend has coincided with a rise in television-based political campaigning. However, emerging technologies offer a means of renewing the confidence of voters in the electoral process by allowing a form of individual contact and interaction not found in present communication campaigns. The rapid proliferation of political websites offers the possibility of direct interactions between political candidates and potential voters. But is this feature of the Web psychologically significant? This study examined the following specific research question: For voters, controlling for apathy, What is the relationship between the level of website interactivity and the degree of psychological affinity toward a candidate on a website?
\n\n\tThe theoretical framework for this study was the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM). According to the ELM, attitude change can occur when an individual has the motivation, ability, or involvement to process the central arguments of a message (central route). However, when an individual does not have the resources to process the central arguments of a message, attitude change occurs as a result of some simple cue (peripheral route). Based on ELM, and considering website interactivity as a peripheral cue, psychological affinity as an indicator of attitude change, and political apathy as an indicator of (lack of) motivation/involvement, the following hypothesis was generated:
\n\n\tThe degree of psychological affinity felt by apathetic voters toward the candidate will be positively related to the level of website interactivity on the candidate's website. However, for non-apathetic voters, candidate perceptions would not vary as a function of website interactivity.
\n\n\tForty-nine participants took part in a between-participants experiment. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions (low interactivity-no extra links; medium interactivity-a link to access extra information about the candidate; high interactivity-a link to send an e-mail message to the candidate).The content and layout was similar across all three conditions. After entering the lab, participants were asked to fill out a pre-questionnaire containing measures of political involvement and knowledge. They were then exposed to the website and asked to go through the information as carefully as possible. After exposure, participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire pertaining to measures of psychological affinity and website content.
\n\n\tThe dependent measure of psychological affinity was divided into four factors called 'Caring,' Trustworthy,' 'Responsive,' and 'Charismatic.' The results show that participants who were exposed to higher levels of interactivity developed a positive attitude change toward the candidate by perceiving him to be more caring than those participants who had no interactive links. A significant interaction was also obtained such that, with increasing interactivity, apathetic participants' perception of the candidate's sensitivity (caring), reponsiveness, and trustworthiness tended to increase, whereas non-apathetic participants tended to rate him as less caring, responsive, and trustworthy.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/interactivity1.jpg\")
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/interactivity2.jpg\")
\n\tAn important theoretical implication of the present study is that certain relatively unexplored elements of new media can help redress some of the major problems posed by the rapid rise in mediated political communications. As indicated by the present study, technological features of the new web medium, such as interactivity, seem to have the potential for improving voter affinity toward their candidates. The findings of this study also have implications for other areas of communication research (e.g., advertising). For example, targeted advertising on the internet can potentially stimulate marketplace competition and choice by enhancing the interactivity of their websites.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31061" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-10T18:58:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32797, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "5d8a1183-ac7c-489d-b47a-daff06945f12", "siteSettingsId": 32797, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20963, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "The effects of user control on movie trailer immersion and enjoyment", "slug": "the-effects-of-user-control-on-movie-trailer-immersion-and-enjoyment", "uri": "medialab/research-article/the-effects-of-user-control-on-movie-trailer-immersion-and-enjoyment", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:27:51-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:07:47-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32797, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/the-effects-of-user-control-on-movie-trailer-immersion-and-enjoyment", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/the-effects-of-user-control-on-movie-trailer-immersion-and-enjoyment", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40239": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jeeyun Oh", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40241": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Mun-Young Chung", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40243": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sangyong Han", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tRecent interactive movie trailers show the next generation of movie marketing by providing users more controlling experience to navigate information about the movie. However, cognitive load required to control information flow and the inevitable controlling behavior to manipulate medium would interfere with the immersive experience into the narrative world. This study explores a possible negative effect of the user control on immersive and enjoyable experience in the narrative of the movie trailer by comparing the level of immersion and enjoyment in high vs. low user control condition. The strength of narrative was expected to moderate the negative effect of user control, since the stronger the narrative was, the more users would feel interrupted while controlling the movie trailer.
\n\n\tH1: Higher level of user control will lead to less immersion with the movie trailer.
\n\tH2: The negative effect of user control on the degree of immersion would be greater for the higher narrative movie trailer than for the lower narrative movie trailer.
\n\tH3: Less immersion with the movie trailer will lead to less enjoyment of the movie trailer.
\n\tH4: Higher level of user control will lead to less enjoyment with the movie trailer which is mediated by the level of immersion.
\n\tRQ1: Does the gender of participants moderate the effects of user control?
\n\tWe conducted a 2 (high control vs. low control) x 2 (strong narrative vs. weak narrative) mixed-design factorial experiment. The level of user control was between subjects factor, and operationalized as the degree to which people control over the possibility to decide what information will be presented and what information should follow (Ariely, 2000). Narrative type was operationalized as the degree to which a movie trailer has traditional narrative characteristics such as a strong plot and conflicts among main characters. Strong narrative type was a drama film, The Kite Runner. Weak narrative type was manipulated as an animal documentary film, The Earth. All stimulus materials are described in Figure 1. A total of 51 male and female undergraduate students enrolled in a telecommunications class participated in exchange for extra course credits.
\n\n\tFigure 1. Screenshots of experimental stimulus
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Oh_et_al_Figure01.jpg\")
\n\tA significant interaction between user control and narrative type showed that low user control was more effective for immersion (M = 5.86) with movie trailers than high user control (M = 5.23) only in the case of strong narrative, as expected. In addition, a significant interaction between gender and user control on behavioral intention was found. While female participants showed more behavioral intention in the high user control condition (M = 5.48) than in the low control condition (M = 4.70), male students indicated more behavioral intention with low user control (M = 5.20) than with high user control (M = 4.83). Finally, the relationship between immersion and enjoyment suggests that these two concepts are strongly correlated.
\n\n\tFigure 2. Immersion as a function of control level and narrative type
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Oh_et_al_Figure02.JPG\")
\n\tFigure 3. Behavioral intention as a function of control level and gender
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Oh_et_al_Figure03.jpg\")
\n\tOur current results suggest that the input for more user control can interfere with the immersion, or transportation into the narrative world. If cognitive processing in strong narrative requires people to totally focus in order to fully enjoy that state, additional cognitive load to control the information flow would be inherently conflicting with the immersion into that narrative. Also, the inevitable physical behavior to select which part of movie trailer that they want to see might interfere with the development of mental model about narrative. In addition, the interaction between gender and the level of user control suggests that female participants might be able to enjoy the whole process of navigating the websites while controlling the information flow, by managing the cognitive load from higher user control more effectively than males. Also, this result implies that the criteria for deciding behavior about the movie or movie trailer might be different between females and males. If males had more strict criteria about the efficiency of exploring a website, it makes sense that they showed more behavioral intention in the low control condition, where they could enjoy the whole movie trailer with just one click.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31061" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-10T18:45:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32791, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "b8253740-7413-4eb0-b440-a1e608d380a6", "siteSettingsId": 32791, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20961, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Reactivity vs. interactivity:", "slug": "reactivity-vs-interactivity", "uri": "medialab/research-article/reactivity-vs-interactivity", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:27:50-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:52:28-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32791, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/reactivity-vs-interactivity", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/reactivity-vs-interactivity", "subtitle": "Impression formation effects of message contingency in political webs", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40230": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Justin Brown", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40232": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sriram Kalyanaraman", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tSundar, S. S., Brown, J., & Kalyanaraman, S. (1999, May). Reactivity vs. interactivity: Impression formation effects of message contingency in political websites. Paper presented to the Communication and Technology Division at the 49th annual conference of the International Communication Association (ICA), San Francisco.
\n\n\tA previous study (Sundar, Hesser, Kalyanaraman, & Brown, 1998) examined the relationship between website interactivity and psychological affinity toward a candidate on a website. The present study attempts to posit the existence of two distinct conceptualizations of website interactivity-the Dialogue View and the Contingency View. The previous study (Sundar et al, 1998) investigated the psychological effects of interactivity using the Dialogue conceptualization. This study was designed to replicate it by using the Contingency View. Specifically, it examines the relationship between website interactivity, the level of political apathy and the level of positive impressions of the candidate as well as his policy positions.
\n\n\tThe present study operationalized three levels of website interactivity based on the Contingency model of interactivity. This leads to the following hypothesis:
\n\n\tH1: Participants' perceptual ratings of a website's interactivity will be a direct positive function of the degree of message contingency present in the site.
\n\n\tIf message contingency is psychologically relevant to subjects' perception of interactivity, this study should replicate the main-effect of interactivity found in a previous study (Sundar et al, 1998). This leads to the following hypothesis:
\n\n\tH2: Increased interactivity of a political website leads to more positive impressions of the candidate as well as his policy positions.
\n\n\tAccording to the Elaboration Likelihood Model, (ELM), attitude change can occur when an individual has the motivation, ability, or involvement to process the central arguments of a message (central route). However, when an individual does not have the resources to process the central arguments of a message, attitude change occurs as a result of some simple cue (peripheral route). This study seeks to measure subjects' impressions of not only the candidate as a person but also his policy positions. Based on ELM, and considering website interactivity as a peripheral cue, impression formation as an indicator of attitude change, and political apathy as an indicator of (lack of) motivation/involvement, the following hypothesis was generated:
\n\n\tH3: The relationship between website interactivity and impression formation proposed in H2 will be more pronounced among apathetic voters than among non-apathetic voters.
\n\n\tIn a between-participants experiment, sixty participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions (low interactivity, medium interactivity; high interactivity).The content and layout was similar across all three conditions. After entering the lab, participants were asked to fill out a pre-questionnaire containing measures of political involvement and knowledge. They were then exposed to the website and asked to go through the information as carefully as possible. After exposure, participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire pertaining to measures of impression formation and website content.
\n\n\tThe dependent measure of psychological affinity was divided into four factors called 'Caring,' 'Charismatic,' 'Qualified' and 'Appealing.'
\n\n\tH1: Supported. Participants in the low interactivity condition perceived the website as being less interactive than participants in the medium interactivity condition, who in turn perceived it as being less interactive than participants in the high interactivity condition.
\n\n\tH2: Partially supported. This follows an inverted-V pattern. Moderate interactivity seems to enhance candidate's appeal as well as his caring nature, but high interactivity seems to detract from it. Similarly, the level of voter agreement with the candidate's position on policy issues is enhanced with moderate interactivity, but not with high interactivity.
\n\n\tH3: Not supported. The interaction term between interactivity and apathy did not attain statistical significance.
\n\n\tcaring policy position
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/contingency2.jpg\")
\n\tAn important contribution of this study is that it empirically demonstrates the conceptual distinction between two important views of interactivity in communication research. While previous studies encourage us to consider interactivity as a feature of the medium, the operationalization of interactivity in this study prompts us to consider interactivity as a message feature. The results also show that a non-content feature of online communication such as interactivity can contribute significantly to individuals' psychological responses to mediated content. This finding is of importance to not only traditional media effects researchers but also political communicators. A clear practical implication for website developers is that, when it comes to message contingency, reactivity is sometimes more effective than full interactivity.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31061", "31078" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-10T18:37:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32781, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "9f1107be-57b6-49a4-9788-0d08de6f1c76", "siteSettingsId": 32781, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20959, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "To share or not to share, that is the question", "slug": "to-share-or-not-to-share-that-is-the-question", "uri": "medialab/research-article/to-share-or-not-to-share-that-is-the-question", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:27:48-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:53:27-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32781, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/to-share-or-not-to-share-that-is-the-question", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/to-share-or-not-to-share-that-is-the-question", "subtitle": "Examining psychological effects of heuristic cues on users’ attitudes on a product review website", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40201": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Pamela Jo Brubaker", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40203": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Andrew Kegerise", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40205": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Hyang-Sook Kim", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40207": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Kiwon Seo", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tDo visual cues afforded by technology influence website users’ perception of a product? Do people evaluate a product more positively when they are able to share information about the product with others online? The current study examines the psychological effects of heuristic cues that appear on a product review website to gain a better understanding of online agency as proposed in the MAIN model (Sundar, 2008a).
\n\n\tRQ1: What is the relationship between technological affordances (rating source, star rating, and sharing options) and the authority, machine, bandwagon, and identity (sense of control and sense of community) heuristics?
\n\n\tRQ2: What is the relationship between technological affordances (rating source, star rating and sharing options) and credibility of the product review website?
\n\n\tRQ3: What is the relationship between technological affordances (rating source, star rating, and sharing options) and attitudes towards the product, attitudes towards the product review website, and purchase intention?
\n\n\tRQ4: Do the authority, machine, bandwagon, and identity heuristics mediate the relationship between technological affordances (rating source, star rating, and sharing options) and perceptions of credibility?
\n\n\tRQ5: Will perceptions of credibility mediate the relationship between technological affordances (rating source, star rating, and sharing options) and attitudes towards the product, attitudes towards the product review website, and purchase intention?
\n\n\tFive research questions were explored using a 2 (star rating: one star vs. four star) × 3 (source rating: reviewer’s rating vs. average user’s rating vs. website rating) × 2 (sharing options: presence vs. absence) between-participants online experiment. Participants (N = 458) were exposed to identical product reviews for a haptic cell phone, with variations in star-rating cues, source cues, and sharing options (see Figure 1 and 2 for examples of the stimuli).
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/share01.jpg\")
\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/share02.jpg\")
\n\tParticipants rated a product and a review website more positively when they viewed a high rated (four stars) product review and thereby showed greater purchase intentions than products rated poorly (one star). In addition, social media and bookmarking options led participants to perceive a product more positively. This relationship was mediated by credibility toward the website. Moreover, perceived authority and bandwagon heuristics mediated the relationship between presence of sharing options and credibility perceptions of the website. Finally, the interaction effect between review source and star ratings on perceived objectiveness showed the effect of the expert source was greatly dependent on the number of stars whereas other users and the website did not affect participants’ perception of objectiveness of the website in relation to star ratings (see Figure 3).
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/share03.jpg\")
\n\tThe findings not only supported the essential argument of the MAIN model, particularly effects of agency cues on a product review website, but also underscored the importance of online sharing applications on designing information-based websites. Specifically, the current study showed that presence of sharing options not only contributed to building credibility toward the review website but also lead to more favorable product attitudes. The findings also demonstrated that the simple presence of sharing affordances leads to increases in perceptions of authority and bandwagon heuristics.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31061" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-10T05:28:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32773, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "f6d7d3b5-d299-4f18-a373-0ee5d8c43d09", "siteSettingsId": 32773, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20957, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Using 3-d visualization in a fitness center website:", "slug": "using-3-d-visualization-in-a-fitness-center-website", "uri": "medialab/research-article/using-3-d-visualization-in-a-fitness-center-website", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:27:47-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:53:25-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32773, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/using-3-d-visualization-in-a-fitness-center-website", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/using-3-d-visualization-in-a-fitness-center-website", "subtitle": "The role of modality and source interactivity", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40188": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Xue Dou Kumar", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40189": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Kumar S", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40190": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Yu Lu", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tGiven the increasing attention of using the Internet for health intervention in the past years, this study investigated whether using 3-D visualization in a fitness center web site would result in better knowledge, attitude, and behavioral intention towards a fitness center compared to 2-D static images. Unlike previous studies that characterized 3-D visualization with media richness and interactivity, this study adopted two types of interactivity (modality interactivity and source interactivity) from Sundar’s (2007) interactivity model to explain the effect of on 3-D visualization.
\n\n\tAccording to Sundar’s (2007) interactivity model, modality interactivity refers to “the variety of modalities that it offers for the user to experience the various parts of a website” (p. 90). In addition, source interactivity refers to “the extent to which the user feels that he or she is the source or gatekeeper” (p. 92). Both modality interactivity and source interactivity will increase users’ engagements with web site content, which will as a result, yield better cognitive, attitudinal, and behavioral outcomes.
\n\n\tCompared with 2-D static images, 3-D visualization is high in modality interactivity since it allows users to see the product in a series of continuous actions that have greater appeal to our senses. In addition, 3-D visualization in a web site is high in source interactivity since it often provides users with control over the content, such as allowing user to view the images from their desired angles. Thus, we hypothesize that;
\n\n\tH1: Participants who are exposed to a fitness center website with high modality interactivity will have better psychological outcomes (knowledge, attitude, and behavioral intention) towards the fitness center compared to participants who are exposed to a low modality interactivity website.
\n\n\tH2: Participants who are exposed to a fitness center website with high source modality interactivity will have better psychological outcomes towards the fitness center compared to participants who are exposed to a low source interactivity website.
\n\n\tH3: The higher the interactivity, the better the psychological outcomes.
\n\n\tBased on previous literature, we proposed three variables that would mediate the relationship between 3-D visualization and psychological outcomes.
\n\n\tH4: Sense of presence will mediate the relationships between modality interactivity and psychological outcomes
\n\tH5: Sense of presence will mediate the relationships between source interactivity and psychological outcomes
\n\tH6: Perceived control will mediate the relationships between source credibility and psychological outcomes
\n\n\tH7: Perceived coolness will mediate the relationships between modality interactivity and psychological outcomes
\n\n\tH8: Perceived coolness will mediate the relationships between source interactivity and psychological outcomes
\n\n\tA 2X2 between subjects experiment was conducted using online questionnaires. Participants (N=205) were randomly assigned to interact with one of the four web sites containing; 1) six different images of the fitness center, 2) the same six images but each image could be zoomed in and out by using the scroll button as well as moved by clicking and dragging the mouse, 3) a 27 seconds long continuously streaming video of 360-degree view of the same fitness center with a frame rate of 15 frames per second, and 4) a 360-degree view of the center that could be zoomed in and out as well as panned in all the directions (up down, left, right). After viewing the website, the participants were asked to answer follow-up questions regarding their knowledge, attitudes, and behavioral intentions toward the fitness center.
\n\n\tThe results provided support to the primary hypotheses that high level of modality and source interactivity leads to better psychological outcomes. In addition, presence, coolness, and control are found to mediate the relationship between two types of interactivities and psychological outcomes. Specifically, presence and coolness mediate the effect of modality interactivity on attitude and knowledge. In turn, control and coolness are found to mediate the effect of source interactivity on knowledge and one of the sub-categories of behavioral intentions, recommendation.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/3DINTERACTIVITY1.jpg\")
\n\tCompared to 2-D static images, a fitness center website using 3-D visualization can yield better cognitive, attitudinal and behavioral outcomes. This is mainly because 3-D visualization makes people feel as if they are \"there\" (presence) and provides people with a sense of control over the content (perceived control). Presence and perceived control induces people to feel that the website is cool, which in turn results in better psychological outcomes.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31061" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-09T21:21:00-04:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32767, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "1d1357f1-0ef1-4db5-b724-90a3978345d2", "siteSettingsId": 32767, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20955, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Money, media, and college athletics:", "slug": "money-media-and-college-athletics", "uri": "medialab/research-article/money-media-and-college-athletics", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:27:46-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:53:21-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32767, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/money-media-and-college-athletics", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/money-media-and-college-athletics", "subtitle": "The effect of story type on identification and purchasing intent", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40179": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Roger Van Scyoc", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "40180": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sika Wheeler", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tCollege athletics is a multi-billion dollar business. From tickets to games to cherished college hoodies, the dollars—and the corresponding media coverage—quickly add up. But the creators of the product on the field, the student-athletes, receive 0% of the total revenue. This study seeks to examine the effect of a specific frame, story type, on readers’ level of identification with the athletes and the NCAA in the debate on paying college athletes, as well as readers’ purchasing intent of associated merchandise.
\n\n\tRQ1a: For young adults, controlling for age, income, perspective-taking, empathic concern, high school and college sports participation, and perceived issue importance, what is the relationship between story type and level of identification with college athletes?
\n\tRQ1b: What is the relationship between story type and level of identification with the NCAA?
\n\tRQ2: What is the relationship between level of identification and purchasing intent?
\n\tH1: Prior opposition to payment is negatively related to support for payment.
\n\tH2: The feature and op-ed stories (soft news) are significant predictors of purchasing intent for those who show low prior opposition to payment and sports involvement.
\n\tH3a: Higher identification with college athletes is positively related with purchasing intent of team merchandise.
\n\tH3b: Higher identification with college athletes is positively related with support for college athlete payment.
\n\tThe study employed a between subjects experimental design. A sample of 152 students was drawn from three undergraduate classes at Penn State University. Participants read and provided informed consent and then specified their level of sports involvement. Highly involved individuals were put in the control condition, while all others were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions (hard news, feature, and op-ed stories). Participants then proceeded through the rest of the questionnaire, answering questions measuring level of identification and purchasing intent of college athletics merchandise among others.
\n\n\tAfter running a bivariate analysis on the effect of prior opposition to athlete pay on level of support for a policy that would enforce pay, as prior opposition increased, support for payment decreased significantly (p < .0001, R2=0.46). Thus, H1 was supported. (See Figure 1.) Soft news (feature and op-ed) did not show to be significant predictors for purchasing intent of either athletic event (p =0.50) or memorabilia (p=0.21). However, the relationship approached significance when in regards to purchasing intent for apparel (p=0.05). Thus, H2 is not supported. The identification measurements did not show any significant relationships with athletic event (p=0.72), apparel (p=0.53), or memorabilia (p=0.20), therefore H3a and H3b were not supported. To check for identification as a mediator, the Baron and Kenny (1986) model was utilized. In order for identification with athletes to show true mediation between story type and purchasing intent or policy support, story type would first have to show significant variance for identification with athletes. Since no significance was found, identification cannot be regarded as a valid mediating variable between story type and either dependent variable.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/1_1.png\")
\n\tFor highly involved fans, prior opposition to paying college athletes makes little difference in the likelihood of purchasing college athletic apparel. It is for the consumers who show low sports involvement where prior attitudes make a difference. Marketers and colleges may not have to worry about significant media effects from negative coverage of the “pay for play” debate, particularly for avid sports fans. But for fair-weather or non-fans, media effects and prior attitudes may make more of a difference in predicting their overall purchasing intent.
\n\tNo significant effects were found for the soft news stories, so no support was found for H2. Identification was not found to be a mediator in the current study, as the relationship between story type and identification with athletes was found to insignificant. While significance was found in the relationship between story type and identification with the NCAA, no significance was found between identification with the NCAA and purchasing intent. The Baron and Kenny (1986) model was used to assess mediation.
\n\tScholars seem to suggest that privacy concern and hesitance to disclose personal information might be an inevitable consequence of using personalization systems, despite the technological and legal endeavors to protect privacy of the users (Chellappa & Sin, 2005). The purpose of our study is to examine whether inserting anthropomorphic cues (e.g., facial features, gender, audible human voices; Kim & Sundar, 2012) —that are often used in domains such as e-commerce, where agents are used to evoke the same experience as when interacting with a salesperson at a “brick and mortar” store (Qui & Benbassat, 2009)—on the interface of an online personalization system can decrease or increase the users’ privacy concern and intention to disclose.
\n\n\tThis paper attempts to examine the impact of anthropomorphic cues displayed in personalization systems on users’ privacy concern and intention to disclose personal information. Theoretically, (a) our study has potential to identify factors, anthropomorphic cues, that are necessary to be investigated in the studies on users’ privacy concern and intention to disclose; moreover, (b) our study might contribute to advancing knowledge on users’ responses to anthropomorphic cues. Practically, our study may provide tips for designing personalization systems that lower users’ privacy concerns and increase their willingness to disclose personal information.
\n\n\tH1: Embarrassment will be higher in the anthropomorphic cues condition than the machine cues condition.
\n\n\tH2: Embarrassment will be positively related to privacy concern.
\n\n\tH3: Embarrassment will be negatively related to intent to disclose personal information.
\n\n\tH4: Embarrassment will mediate the relationship between anthropomorphic cues (vs. machine cues) and privacy concern.
\n\n\tH5: Embarrassment will mediate the relationship between anthropomorphic cues (vs. machine cues) and intent to disclose personal information.
\n\n\tRQ1: Is there a relationship between anthropomorphic cues (vs. machine cues) and trust in an assessment agent?
\n\n\tH6: Trust in an assessment agent will be negatively related to privacy concern.
\n\n\tH7: Trust in an assessment agent will be positively related to intention to disclose personal information.
\n\n\tRQ2: Does having trust in an assessment agent mediate the relationship between the impact of anthropomorphic cues (vs. machine cues) and privacy concern?
\n\n\tRQ3: Does having trust in an assessment agent mediate the relationship between the impact of anthropomorphic cues (vs. machine cues) and intention to disclose personal information?
\n\n\tParticipants (N=197) in a between-subjects design experiment were exposed to one of four versions of a personalized health assessment, each with equivalent content but differing in cues depending on the agent guiding the assessment. An online personalized health assessment on alcohol consumption behaviors was constructed as stimulus material for this study. Questions selected for the health assessment employed in this study were intended to vary in the level of embarrassment elicited from participants. Participants received personalized information in response to 12 questions.
\n\n\tInformation was equivalent in terms of word count and sentence structure. Responses from the assessment were not completely personalized but they were intended to be perceived as such. Versions of the health assessment were equivalent in all aspects except the cues displayed by the assessment agent. Two cues were used as manipulation, visual cues and text-based cues.
\n\n\tVisual cues were displayed to the left side of a static gray banner for all conditions that had “Health Assessment” displayed. All visual cues were the same size and in the same position on screen. The visual cues for anthropomorphic conditions included an image of a virtual agent (i.e., female face for female-anthropomorphic; male face for male anthropomorphic) and a nametag (i.e., “Laura” for female-anthropomorphic; “Alex” for male-anthropomorphic). Visual cues for the machine condition included an image of a computer and the label, “System.” The control condition had no image or label. Text cues were displayed in all conditions while participants waited to receive personalized responses (i.e., Please wait, Laura is working…” for female-anthropomorphic; “Please wait, Alex is working…” for male-anthropomorphic; “The system is processing” for machine; “The agent is processing” for control).
\n\n\tAll participants completed the study online. They received an email with information about the study, instructions on how to participate, and a link leading to the survey. The link directed participants to a consent form where they clicked a link to give consent and were subsequently randomized into conditions. Health assessment questions were followed directly by the study questionnaire.
\n\n\tAmong female participants, the agent with the male-anthropomorphic cues (M = 4.08, SD = 2.83, n = 24) was perceived as less human-like than the agent with machine cues (M = 6.29, SD = 2.45, n = 42; t (116) = 3.17, p < .05) but the agent with the female anthropomorphic cues (M = 5.29, SD = 3.14, n = 12) was perceived as being no different in humanness from the agent with the machine cues (t (116) = 1.12, n.s.). Male participants, however, perceived the agent with male-anthropomorphic cues (M = 5.38, SD = 2.59, n = 13) and the agent with female-anthropomorphic cues (M = 5.57, SD = 3.51, n = 14) was perceived as being no different in humanness from the agent with machine cues (M = 5.46, SD = 3.03, n = 29) (|t|s < .11).
\n\n\tThe agent with machine cues (M = 7.80, SD = 2.23, n = 42; male) was significantly more trusted than the agent with male-anthropomorphic cues (M = 6.33, SD = 2.51, n = 24) among female participants(t (116) = 2.55, p < .05); but the comparison was not significant among male participants (t (73) = .99, n.s). Both female participants and male participants did not significantly trust the agent with female-anthropomorphic cues more or less than the agent with machine cues (t|s< 1.27). Although female participants but not male participants trusted the agent with machine cues more than the agent with male-anthropomorphic cues, overall, among all participants, the agent with anthropomorphic cues was not significantly trusted more or less than the agent with machine cues. Therefore, the evidence suggesting the existence of the relationship between anthropomorphic cue and trust in assessment agent proposed in RQ1 was not found.
\n\n\tThe prerequisite for testing the indirect impact of anthropomorphic cue on intention to disclose via trust in assessment agent was met among female participants only because female participants trusted the assessment agent with male-anthropomorphic cues (=1) significantly less than the agent with machine cues (=0; unstandardized beta = -1.47, SE = .58, p < .05) and they were more likely to provide personal information to the agent that they trusted more (unstandardized beta = .36, SE = .11, p < .05).
\n\n\tThe degree to which female participants trust the agent with male anthropomorphic cues compared to the agent with machine cues through the perception of its humanness positively influenced their intention to disclose (95% CI: -.1817, -.5021; 5000 bootstrap samples). In other words, male-anthropomorphic cues negatively influenced perceived humanness (unstandardized beta = -2.20, SE = .69, p < .05), which, in turn, positively influenced trust in assessment agent (unstandardized beta = .22, SE = .07, p < .05), which, in turn, positively influenced intention to disclose (unstandardized beta = .37, SE = .11, p < .05) among female participants.
\n\n\tAmong female participants only, compared to machine cues, male-anthropomorphic cues—but not female-anthropomorphic cues—decreased trust in the assessment agent, which, in turn, positively influenced intention to disclose. However, privacy concern was not indirectly influenced by anthropomorphic cues (vs. machine cues) via trust in assessment agent. Moreover, indirect impact of anthropomorphic cues (vs. machine cues) on either privacy concern or intention to disclose via embarrassment was not significant.
\n\n\tThe theoretical implication we propose from our study is that anthropomorphic cues displayed in personalization systems can be considered as a factor influencing users’ intention to disclose. Our study suggests that the cues triggering the humanness of the systems may indirectly increase their intention to disclose because users have more trust in systems that are perceived as human-like.
\n\n\tAnother theoretical implication of our study is that anthropomorphic cues displayed in personalization systems do not always increase the users’ perception about the humanness of the system. It is intuitively valid to assume that more anthropomorphic cues would increase perceived humanness. However, the results of our study suggest that the relationship between anthropomorphic cues and perceived humanness is not that simple; for example, the combination of gender of users and gender of anthropomorphic cues might influence the degree to which the system is perceived as human-like.
\n\n\tThe practical implication of our study is that designers of personalization systems should consider inserting cues that could likely increase users’ intention to disclose personal information. The results seem to suggest that displaying male-anthropomorphic cues in personalization systems might not be a good idea; inserting female-anthropomorphic cues or perhaps cues that emphasize the artificial nature of the computer (e.g., non-humanoid robot) might be a better choice.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31060" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-07T07:49:00-05:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32751, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "066cbc65-19d0-4e32-b492-319414a302ec", "siteSettingsId": 32751, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20951, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Interrupting entertainment online:", "slug": "interrupting-entertainment-online", "uri": "medialab/research-article/interrupting-entertainment-online", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:27:43-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:53:16-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32751, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/interrupting-entertainment-online", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/interrupting-entertainment-online", "subtitle": "Content customization and online television platforms", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40146": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Keunyeong “Karina” Kim", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40147": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Drew D. Shade", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40148": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Elise M. Stevens", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tOnline television platforms (e.g., Hulu, CBS.com, etc.) encourage users to individualize their own television viewing experience through customizable features built into those interfaces (Chamberlain, 2010). Due to customization, there is “no standard way of experiencing television” (Simon & Rose, 2010, p. 52). Among the many customizable features possible, the current study presented tested for the effects of content customization—adjusting advertisement placement in a television episode—on perceived control over the content, brand loyalty to the products featured in the advertisements, media enjoyment, narrative engagement and behavioral intentions to use and share online television platforms.
\n\n\t1. Perceived control over content
\n\tCustomizable features offer users perceived control over content in four different ways (Marathe & Sundar, 2010). First, modifiable features simply enhance a sense of control by forming perception of “self as a source” (Sundar, 2008, p. 66). Additionally, contributing to content with customizable features provides users with greater predictability over the content they will experience. Finally, interfaces with customizable options allow users to initiate actions on media content and make their own choices when shaping their media viewing experience (Marathe & Sundar, 2010).
\n\tH1: The participants with content customization will have greater perceived control over content than those without content customization.
\n\t2. Brand loyalty
\n\tCustomization can lead to positive attitudes and behaviors toward customized objects (Kalyanaraman & Sundar, 2006). Particularly, customizable features are beneficial for both businesses and customers in regards to brand loyalty (Schrage, 1999). In the gaming context, it has been found that customization increases gamer loyalty to certain types of games (Teng, 2010), which leads to stable revenue and often a competitive advantage (Reichheld & Schefter, 2000). Thus, customizing advertisement placement may increase brand loyalty among users.
\n\tH2: The participants with content customization will have greater brand loyalty than those without content customization.
\n\t3. Narrative engagement and media enjoyment
\n\tTo enjoy narrative content, viewers have to be fully immersed into the story (Green & Brock, 2004). However, a strong feeling of immersion into a narrative is hard to achieve when the media structure does not allow a user to fully employ their cognitive capacities in processing media content. According to Lang’s Limited Capacity Model (2009), one’s finite capacity is allocated into processing the media content and the media structure based on one’s own goal and interests. Therefore, customization might impede engagement into the narrative, which may result in less media enjoyment.
\n\tH3: The participants with content customization will have less narrative engagement than those without content customization.
\n\tH4: The participants with content customization will have less media enjoyment than those without content customization.
\n\tHowever, customization may actually lead users to experience greater narrative engagement and media enjoyment if the performed customization actually helps improve the media viewing experience. Customizing content will allow viewers to diminish or avoid interruption of advertisements. In many online television platforms, viewers are able to skip advertisements so that the ads do not interfere with the flow of media exposure (Ha, 2003).
\n\tH5: The participants who choose opening advertisement interruption will have greater (1) narrative engagement and (2) media enjoyment than those that choose regular advertisement interruption.
\n\t4. Behavioral intentions to use and share online television platforms
\n\tOnline television interfaces with customizable features not only receive great attention from television content consumers, but also create consumer loyalty (Kalyanaraman & Sundar, 2006). With a variety of customizable functions, online television platforms shift television viewing from standard viewing into customized viewing. In that regard, it is important to assess the effects of content customization on behavioral intentions toward online television platforms.
\n\tRQ1: Will participants with content customization show intentions to use online TV platforms?
\n\tRQ2: Will participants with content customization show intentions to share online TV platforms?
\n\tParticipants (N = 75) in the between-subjects experiment were exposed to a 20-minute comedic episode and were randomly assigned to one of the five different advertisement conditions. The conditions included: (1) watching all the advertisements before the episode (Open), (2) watching the episode with regular advertisement interruption (Regular), (3) choosing to view the advertisements before the episode and the use of a slider bar (COpen), (4) choosing to view the episode with regular advertisement interruption and the use of a slider bar (CRegular), and (5) watching no advertisements at all (control group). After watching the episode, participants were asked to assess primary dependent variables, including perceived control over content, perceived brand loyalty, media evaluation, narrative engagement, and behavioral intentions to use and share online television platforms.
\n\n\tH1: Partially supported. Perceived control had significant relationships with the content customization conditions. Findings showed that choosing advertisement placement before the episode (Copen) resulted in more perceived control when compared to the other conditions.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/kim,_shade,_stevens_f1.png\")
\n\tH2: Partially supported. Brand loyalty had significant relationships with the content customization condition. Findings showed that choosing advertisement placement before the episode (Copen) resulted in more perceived control when compared to the other conditions
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/kim,_shade,_stevens_f2.png\")
\n\tH3: Not supported. There was no significant relationship found between content customization and narrative engagement.
\n\n\tH4: Not supported. There was no significant relationship found between content customization and media enjoyment.
\n\tH5: Not supported. There was no significant relationship found between the different content customization conditions (copen vs. cregular) and both narrative engagement and media enjoyment.
\n\tRQ1 & RQ2: There were no significant relationships found between content customization and behavioral intentions to use and share online television platforms.
\n\n\tFindings from this study showed that choosing advertisement placement before the television episode produces greater perceived control over content and brand loyalty when compared to the other conditions. This indicates that a user’s sense of control and brand loyalty is enhanced not by simply having a choice to customize the advertisement placement, but by the results of the performed customization. A sense of control was fulfilled only when the performed customization actually helped reduce potential advertisement interruptions. Similarly, brand loyalty was also achieved when the advertisements did not interrupt the media viewing experience. This might be because people were pleased with the benefits of the customization or because the customization was more noticeable than the other customization condition.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31060" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-07T07:43:00-05:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32745, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "11f9d794-b22a-43ed-a279-3e0f4bad1c85", "siteSettingsId": 32745, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20949, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Uniqueness and condom use attitudes:", "slug": "uniqueness-and-condom-use-attitudes", "uri": "medialab/research-article/uniqueness-and-condom-use-attitudes", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:27:42-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:53:45-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32745, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/uniqueness-and-condom-use-attitudes", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/uniqueness-and-condom-use-attitudes", "subtitle": "A study evaluation the effectiveness of tailored vs. non-tailored safe sex messages", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40138": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Akshaya Sreenivasan", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40139": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Amber Worthington", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tSexually transmitted infections (STIs) are a large concern for all sexually active individuals. While condom use is an effective means to reduce transmission and infection of STIs, condom use declines sharply from high-school aged individuals to college-aged individuals. Universities have therefore implemented safe sex health campaigns to promote condom use; however, the relationship between safe sex messages and effectiveness still needs to be better understood. This study examined whether need for uniqueness moderated the relationship between tailored vs. non-tailored safe sex articles and condom use attitudes and behavioral intentions in university-aged students. We also examined whether or not this relationship differed between male and female students.
\n\n\tOur research question was “For undergraduate students, controlling for age, gender, and annual income of the family, what is the relationship between tailoring of a safe sex health message and attitudes and behavioral intentions towards using a condom?” Uniqueness was treated as a second independent variable in the analysis to observe its moderating effects.
\n\n\tOur hypotheses were as follows:
\n\n\tH1a: Tailored messages presented via a print format will have greater impact on male overall attitude towards condom use than non-tailored messages.
\n\n\tH1b: Tailored messages presented via a print format will have greater impact on female overall attitude towards condom use than non-tailored messages.
\n\n\tH2a: A higher composite need for uniqueness will result in a stronger, positive relationship between tailored messages and the male overall attitudes towards condoms.
\n\n\tH2b: A higher composite need for uniqueness will result in a stronger, positive relationship between tailored messages and the female overall attitudes towards condoms.
\n\n\tAdditionally, we predicted that each individual dimension of uniqueness (creative choice, unpopular choice, avoidance of similarity, unique consumption behavior) would have an effect on each dimension of condom use attitudes (reliability and effectiveness, embarrassment about negotiation and use, embarrassment about purchase, behavioral intentions). Thus we predicted a battery of sixteen hypotheses comparing each of these dimensions as related to the tailored vs. non-tailored safe sex message.
\n\n\tAn electronic, between subjects experimental method using an online questionnaire was administered to collect data for the study. After providing informed consent in accordance with the Institutional Review Board participants were allowed to take part in the study. The procedure consisted of three sections. The first section comprised a battery of 19 questions pertaining to their individual need for uniqueness (a continuous variable measured using the short form CNFU-S), followed by pertinent demographic information. After selecting their gender (male/female), participants were randomized to receive either a generic, non-gendered article, or an article tailored to their gender and self-identity as a university student. After reading the article, respondents were given section 3 where they completed a battery of 18 questions pertaining to their condom-use attitudes and behavioral intentions (a continuous variable measured using the UCLA Multidimensional Condom Attitudes Scale). Participants were then debriefed and released from the online experiment. We ran a GLM on the JMP data analysis software to analyze our data.
\n\n\tH1a, which stated that tailored messages presented via a print format will have greater impact on male attitude towards condom use than non-tailored messages was not supported (p = 0.83), whereas H1b, which stated that tailored messages presented via a print format will have greater impact on female attitude towards condom use than non-tailored messages was supported (p = 0.05). There was no significant effect of the moderation of uniqueness on the relationship between the IV and the DV. In other words, uniqueness did not affect the relationship between tailored vs. non-tailored messages on the composite measure of condom attitudes. No difference existed across gender either. Hence both H2a (p=0.93) and H2b (p=0.52) were not supported. Table 1 shows the parameter estimates of the H1a, H1b, H2a and H2b.
\n\n\tTable 1: Parameter estimates of total uniqueness, tailored vs. non-tailored message, and gender effects on the composite condom attitudes scale.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Worthington_Figure01.jpg\")
\n\tThe 16 hypotheses examining each dimension of uniqueness on each dimension of condom use attitudes yielded no statistically significant results; however, The interaction between creative choice (uniqueness dimension) and reliability and effectiveness of condoms (DV dimension 1) for females and unique consumption behavior for males across the embarrassment of purchase (DV dimension 3) are approaching statistical significance (p=0.10 and p=0.07, respectively). These results are shown in Table 2.
\n\n\t
\n\n\tTable 2: The four dimensions of uniqueness on the four dimensions of condom attitudes when controlling for gender.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/Worthington_Figure02.jpg\")
\n\tWhile we expected that the uniqueness of the individual will positively moderate the relationship between tailored messages and condom use attitudes, we recorded no such effects. This contradicts the existing stream of research work that would lead one to predict that people who are high on uniqueness will prefer messages tailored to them than their non-tailored counterparts.
\n\n\tThe first significant effect we found; tailored messages presented via a print format had greater impact on female attitudes towards condom use than non-tailored messages could potentially be due to female involvement in STI awareness and involvement. We speculate that overall, women are more involved in issues relating to STI’s. In accordance with the ELM, this would suggest that females are all centrally processing the information and all highly involved.
\n\n\tThe first result seen for creative choice predicting attitudes towards reliability and effectiveness coincides with the exploratory analysis that found total uniqueness also positively predicts this condom use attitudes dimension. It is difficult to speculate why these results occurred; however, it is possible that uniqueness of an individual, particularly creative choice, drives an individual to pursue knowledge in all aspects of life, including health, again referring back to high processing of information in accordance with the ELM. With that being said, this particular type of individual could potentially be more likely to be familiar with the knowledge that condoms are generally a reliable and effective means to prevent the spread of STIs. The fact that the relationship between unique consumption behavior is approaching significance to positively predict increasing embarrassment about purchasing condoms in males is interesting. Initially it would be expected that unique consumption behavior might decrease embarrassment about purchasing condoms; however, if it is considered to be a social norm for males to buy and possess condoms, this act of purchasing a condom may no longer be desirable to someone who seeks to purchase abnormal products, or deviate from the norm.
\n\n\tA few limitations exist in the study. One relates back to the fact that during time the questionnaire was administered the university was experiencing a large, nationwide sexual abuse scandal, which could have impacted results relating to attitudes towards a safe sex article. Additionally, the tailoring of the articles may have been too subtle to produce significant results. In the future, this sort of study should be conducted across different universities during a different time period, as well as include higher tailoring of the message.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31060" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-07T07:40:01-05:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32737, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "4e2e0ed4-a6a9-472f-a405-ee700ec6dd01", "siteSettingsId": 32737, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20947, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Effects of trait media multitasking on dual-task performance", "slug": "effects-of-trait-media-multitasking-on-dual-task-performance", "uri": "medialab/research-article/effects-of-trait-media-multitasking-on-dual-task-performance", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:27:40-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:07:26-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32737, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/effects-of-trait-media-multitasking-on-dual-task-performance", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/effects-of-trait-media-multitasking-on-dual-task-performance", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40128": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jian Cui", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40129": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Shardé Hardy", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "40130": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Dev Minotra", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tGeneration Y is known to exhibit a trend shift in the way work is done and how different media are used. A recent psychological study on breadth bias in media multitasking has revealed that individuals with a stronger inclination to simultaneously consume multiple sources of media are more likely to be distracted while attending to a visual stimulus. Additionally, experiments also revealed that they suffered greater switch costs on an experimental task involving frequent switches in the nature of the task being performed. These results provide a basis to understand how media multitasking may be associated to distraction susceptibility in real world tasks, however, experiments with better external validity need to be conducted to understand any such real world implications.
\n\n\tTasks in the real world can be diverse in nature, and different combinations of tasks in dual task settings can make the understanding of implications of an experimental result more complex. Our experiment employs a setting that may relate to operators of emergency response or security surveillance. The effective visual scanning of screen’s (Eg. CCTV or maps) may be a critical component of many such domains. However, the requirement of simultaneously dividing attention with an audio stimulus such as radio-chatter, or task-instructions that demand common and distinct cognitive resources, is important to consider. Our study employs a setting in which participants (N = 57) perform a visual-search task and an audio listening task. Specifically, the study involves discovering a relationship between how breadth bias in media multitasking impacts one’s ability to operate in a dual task setting involving a listening task and a visual-search task. Hence, our general research question is formulated as follows:
\n\n\tRQ1: For members of Generation Y, controlling for age and gender, what is the relationship between an individual’s multitasking inclination and performance on concurrent listening comprehension and visual search tasks?
\n\n\tThe treatment condition required participants to perform the listening and visual-search tasks simultaneously, while the control condition required participants to perform these tasks sequentially. Although these tasks may demand distinct cognitive resources (auditory and visual working memory), some resources are likely to be in common, such as procedural and declarative memory. Hence, our first hypothesis reflects on the general difference in performance across the two conditions, which has been stated as follows:
\n\n\tH1: Controlling for age, gender, and sequence of stimuli presentation, there will be a decrease in performance on the listening task in the experimental condition (multitasking), and most of this decrease in performance will be attributed to tests of recall.
\n\n\tA recent study found that for high media multitaskers, exhibit an additional cost associated to switching tasks frequently, due to the susceptibility of being distracted by irrelevant stimuli. Hence, we formulated our second hypothesis as follows:
\n\t
\n\tH2a: Controlling for age, gender and sequence of stimuli presentation, participants with higher media-multitasking traits will have a greater overall drop in performance on both tasks (visual and audio), in the treatment condition.
\n\tAlso, individuals scoring high on the media-multitasking index may not be as focused as low media multitaskers on single-task settings of the study. This again is attributed to susceptibility towards distractions. Our third hypothesis is accordingly stated as follows:
\n\n\tH2b: Controlling for age, gender and sequence of stimuli presentation, higher media multitaskers will perform worse on the individual tasks in the control condition as compared to lower media multitaskers.
\n\n\tThe experiment consisted of 57 participants and they were assigned to two conditions based on how two stimuli are presented i.e. sequential or concurrent. Participants were given a questionnaire from which their media multitasking inclination was obtained, before beginning any task. The same questionnaire consisted of a 14-item polychronicity measure . The first task was a listening task for which participants were measured for their recall and recognition performance. The second task was a visual search task requiring participants to identify differences in juxtaposed pictures, or, searching for a specific item or person in a clutter of objects or a crowd.
\n\tIndependent Variables Included:
\n\tMedia Multitasking Index (Continuous)
\n\tCondition (Nominal) – levels are Treatment and Control.
\n\tDependent Variables Included:
\n\tListening Task Recognition Score (Continuous)
\n\tListening Task Recall Score (Continuous)
\n\tVisual Search Task Score (Continuous)
\n\tHypothesis 1 was partially supported: It was expected that performance on all task measures would be worse in the treatment condition in comparison to the control condition, as a result ofcognitive load and interference with common cognitive resources. This was true for the recall and recognition components of the listening task. However, participants in the treatment condition performed significantly better on the visual-search task. One explanation to this finding may be provided by the ‘doodling effect’.
\n\n\tHypothesis 2a was not supported: Although we expected a particular interaction effect, our results revealed a different interaction effect supported by a marginal statistical significance. Individuals with high media multitasking scores in the treatment condition appeared to perform better on NPR recall. However, recall scores did not differ across media multitasking index in the control condition.
\n\n\tAlso, there was no significant variation in listening recognition scores across different values of the media multitasking scale, for both conditions - treatment and control.
\n\n\tThe visual search task performance revealed a marginal interaction effect with a dichotomous variable obtained from the media multitasking index (high or low). Visual search performance was lower for high media multitaskers compared to low media multitaskers, in the control condition. This was an expectation from hypothesis 2b. Also, low media multitaskers performed nearly as good as high media multitaskers in the treatment condition. This indicates a ‘doodling effect’ where high media multitaskers seem to depend on a secondary task in order to cope up with a primary task. This result does help explain a trend observed on the visual search task performance in the control condition. In that, higher media multitaskers perform worse on the visual search task, although, a larger sample size may be required to obtain statistical significance.
\n\tHypothesis 2b stated that individuals scoring high on the media multitasking index would perform worse in the control condition on listening and visual search task scores. Hypothesis 2b was not supported, but may be supported partially with a larger sample size, due to an observed trend on the visual search task scores.
\n\t
\n\n\tGiven that the visual-search task performance was higher in the treatment condition, this may suggest that participants preferred the visual search task over the listening task in the treatment condition. An alternative explanation is a ‘doodling effect’ where high media multitaskers may have performed poorly in the control condition, while exhibiting the ability to cope up in the treatment condition in the presence of a secondary task.
\n\n\tGiven that, it was observed that the control condition (overall) performed better than treatment on listening task scores, it does support the notion that performing two tasks simultaneously, deteriorates performance on individual tasks, due to higher cognitive load and conflict for common cognitive resources. Given that some resources demanded by each task, are distinct from each other, our results still maintain that, less interference does permit performing these tasks concurrently.
\n\n\tOur results may appear to come in conflict with a previous study on breadth bias in cognitive control. Given that high media multitaskers, are less effective in filtering irrelevant stimuli, and that they exhibit higher switch costs, their performance should have deteriorated in across conditions of the experiment. However, a higher breadth bias in consuming media (high media multitasking) may not always lead to attending to distractors. Given that we had two tasks in the treatment condition – a high breadth bias across the streams of media (the NPR recognition and scenes in visual search) may have led to better performance, where relevant information absorbed as a result of breadth bias may have inhibited a number of distractors, leading to the ability to cope in a dual task setting. Research on the psychological ‘doodling effect’ may also be informed by the results of this study.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31060" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-07T07:35:48-05:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32733, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "70732265-d576-4ae5-8316-1a3a72d5688c", "siteSettingsId": 32733, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20945, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Understanding the sources and bandwagon effects in blog communities", "slug": "understanding-the-sources-and-bandwagon-effects-in-blog-communities", "uri": "medialab/research-article/understanding-the-sources-and-bandwagon-effects-in-blog-communities", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:27:39-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:07:25-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32733, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/understanding-the-sources-and-bandwagon-effects-in-blog-communities", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/understanding-the-sources-and-bandwagon-effects-in-blog-communities", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40120": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Ibrahim Yucel", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tBlogs are rapidly becoming a large area of research due to their interactive nature. They offer an opportunity to do much in the way of trends analysis and virtual community research. However do we really understand the how and why people read and contribute to blogs? This paper discusses the application of media source and bandwagon heuristics to a video game blog.
\n\n\tIn a contested argument will the community agreement or disagreement with the author of a blog have a significant effect?
\n\n\tH1: Gamers, regardless of the community, will have strong opinions on the argument, and thus will not have an effect or their agreement of disagreement.
\n\n\tH2: Contributors, those who are active in online communities, will be more likely to act while those who are lurkers, readers who do contribute, are not as likely.
\n\n\tFifty nine participants (N=59) were recruited from two sources, a senior level university class and a student video game design club. Participants followed an email link to one of 4 different versions of the survey on a web service called “Survey Monkey”. The stimuli were designed to resemble a blog from a popular blog service. After the stimuli the participants asked a number of questions about the article and hypothetical actions they may make based on the information learned from the post. Most questions were posed on 7 point likert scales, with a few short answer questions.
\n\n\tGamers were more likely to identify with the commenters and use a bandwagon heuristic. This was more pronounced when the comments were positive (agreeing with the article) than negative.
\n\n\tThere is a need to account for bandwagoning in the design of future blogs and the data minded from such virtual communities. There is also evidence to support treating authors and the commenters as separate sources. Even highly opinionated communities can be affected by the comments of their peers.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31060" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-07T07:32:00-05:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32723, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "45f7d34e-224d-484b-953b-4293c2bb3ccf", "siteSettingsId": 32723, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20943, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Who are these power users anyway?", "slug": "who-are-these-power-users-anyway", "uri": "medialab/research-article/who-are-these-power-users-anyway", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:27:38-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:55:02-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32723, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/who-are-these-power-users-anyway", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/who-are-these-power-users-anyway", "subtitle": "Building a psychological profile", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40097": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sampada Marathe", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } }, "40098": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Marije Nije Bijvank", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "40099": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Henriette van Vugt", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } }, "40101": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jolanda Veldhuis", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tWho are these power users and what makes them different from non-power users? Are they called power users because of their power to command industry attention to their evolved levels of technology use? Are power users the earliest adopters of technological innovations? Are they also the heaviest users? Or simply the ones who use most or all aspects of a technology? This paper explicates the concept of power usage among technology users by conducting a survey of 454 respondents in an international sample of technology users. Literature-based categorizations of the social and behavioral aspects of these users are contrasted with data-driven constructs in their ability to predict the volume of everyday use of simple and complex communication technologies. Our discussion focuses on implications for developing a power-users scale as well as its role as an important individual-difference variable with potential to moderate psychological effects of communication technologies.
\n\n\t![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/marathe_et_al_2_1.jpg\")
\n\tIn order to explore these above mentioned characteristics of power users, data were collected in three stages over the span of one year. The first stage was a survey administered to undergraduate students in communication classes. This survey was conducted in a lab setting on a University campus in the United States. Students participated in this survey either for extra credit or as part of their course requirement.
\n\n\tFor the second stage, more undergraduate participants were recruited six months later from communications classes at the same University. The survey was conducted online and a link for the survey was sent to the participants via email. They were given four days to go online and fill out the questionnaire. They were instructed to complete the survey in one sitting and to make sure that there was minimum disturbance when they completed the survey.
\n\n\tFor the third stage, to assemble a more diverse sample, snowball sampling was employed. The investigators sent out mass emails to colleagues and other acquaintances and asked them to forward the survey to as many people as they could. No restrictions were placed on who could fill out the survey. An effort was made to internationalize the sample.
\n\n\tThe most significant dimension of power usage in predicting technology behaviors in both Type I and Type III tests is Motivation. More specifically, we found that motivation is positively related to use of email, browsing of websites, word processing, online shopping and using different devices among other things. Behavior was the next best predictor, and was significantly related to programming, blogging and using a computer to play games and watch movies.
\n\n\tAn exploratory analysis to determine data-driven groupings revealed 5 significant factors based on examination of eigenvalues and the scree plot. These factors were labeled as follows: Technophile, Indispensability, Mastery, Efficiency and Informed Use.
\n\n\tWhen the four normative distinctions (motivation, expertise, efficacy and behavior) were analyzed, we found that motivation to use technology significantly predicted the most common behaviors such as using a computer to send emails, browsing websites, shopping online and engaging in word processing. It can be argued that these behaviors, although at the low end of the power usage scale in terms of common everyday use, represent the majority of regular users of technology. Higher-end behaviors such as programming, playing games on computers, watching movies on computers and blogging, which involve significantly more resources and skill, are predicted by power usage behavior that involves multitasking and making good use of most features afforded by the technology. Surprisingly, expertise and efficacy dimensions of power usage did not predict behaviors significantly.
\n\n\tThe data-driven analysis, for the most part, showed a pattern similar to the theory-driven predictors. It is important to note, however, that all of these predictors have in them all four elements from the normative constructs. To illustrate, we consider the construct of technophile, which came up as the most prolific predictor of technological behaviors. Being a technophile has the element of motivation (love to use gadgets), expertise (make good use of most features), efficacy (like to challenge myself to figure out how to use a new technology) and behavior (explore all available features). Intuitively then, these distinctions are probably more psychologically valid. Perceived indispensability was significantly associated with using a computer, email, browsing websites and engaging in word processing. Given the extensive use of computers in daily life today, this pattern is not surprising. The construct of mastery was found to be significantly associated with behaviors such as using a computer to browse websites, IMing or chatting and using a cell phone. The need for efficiency was made of constructs such as experiencing frustration when made to go through basic steps and not wanting to keep confirming decisions once made. This construct was found to be significantly associated with IMing or chatting and using a digital camera, both tools clearly signaling efficiency in their own way. Informed use, characterized by being able to use shortcuts and being able to provide help to friends about technology use, was significantly correlated with programming, using a PDA and watching movies on a computer – items that are generally associated with experience and knowledge that advanced users need to have.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31060" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-03-07T07:27:00-05:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32719, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "f485b608-699f-43e9-bb77-d9dd39a3737b", "siteSettingsId": 32719, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20941, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "If you build it, they will come – or will they?", "slug": "if-you-build-it-they-will-come-or-will-they", "uri": "medialab/research-article/if-you-build-it-they-will-come-or-will-they", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:27:37-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:54:57-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32719, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/if-you-build-it-they-will-come-or-will-they", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/if-you-build-it-they-will-come-or-will-they", "subtitle": "Need for uniqueness and need for control as psychological predictors of customization", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40091": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sampada Marathe", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tTechnological advances have been at the forefront of buildings interfaces that have the ‘coolest’ new features. But not enough is being done to see how many users actually use those features and to what extent. Most technological devices seem to be built and hyped up with different features merely on the premise: ‘If you build it, they will come’. But research has suggested that most users go with the default settings (Rosson, 1984) or with the form or content that is given to them and never customize. On the other hand, some contradictory studies also suggest that there might be some users that are confident enough to explore all available options and take the time to build an interface that represents their personal interests (Manber, Patel & Robison, 2000). So what is it about customization that makes only some users make use of the customization features while keeping the vast majority pleased with default settings?
\n\n\tDo the psychological constructs of Need for Uniqueness and Need for Control predict amount of customization users engage in? How does Computer/Technology affect the relationship between Need for Uniqueness, Need for Control and Amount of Customization? This paper is an effort to empirically test the above questions. An online survey was conducted with a sample of 513 respondents on a University campus. All three predictors significantly predict amount of customization, but the moderating relationship is not observed. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.
\n\n\tH1: High need for uniqueness will positively influence the amount of customization.
\n\n\tH2: High need for control will positively affect the amount of customization.
\n\n\tH3: Technology efficacy will positively affect the amount of customization.
\n\n\tH4: Technology efficacy will moderate the relationship between need for control, need for uniqueness and amount of customization.
\n\n\tTo explore the above stated relationships between the variables, an online survey was conducted on a University campus. Participants were recruited from undergraduate classes from the Communication and Marketing departments. The questionnaire link was provided to them and they were asked to fill out the survey within a four day period. They were instructed to complete the survey in one sitting and at a place where there would be minimum disturbance.
\n\n\tStandard Least Squares Regression analyses were conducted for all hypotheses. The analyses revealed that all three variables separately accounted for a significant portion of variance in the dependent variable. H4 was not supported. This test however, revealed a significant result for need for control, F (1, 505) = 3.88, p<0.05 and efficacy, F (1, 505) = 14.94, p<0.000. Further analysis was conducted with need for control as predictor and with efficacy as a statistical control. Need for control still came up as a significant predictor for customization, F (1, 510) = 4.89, p<0.05.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31060" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-02-24T19:16:00-05:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32711, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "b0561c42-870a-414e-b29d-00892182b05d", "siteSettingsId": 32711, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20939, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Do we trust crowd or system?", "slug": "do-we-trust-crowd-or-system-effects-of-personalization-and-bandwagon-cues-o", "uri": "medialab/research-article/do-we-trust-crowd-or-system-effects-of-personalization-and-bandwagon-cues-o", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:27:35-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:54:59-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32711, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/do-we-trust-crowd-or-system-effects-of-personalization-and-bandwagon-cues-o", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/do-we-trust-crowd-or-system-effects-of-personalization-and-bandwagon-cues-o", "subtitle": "Effects of personalization and bandwagon cues on users' perceptions in restaurant review web site", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40077": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Jinyoung Kim", "degreeCandidacy": null } }, "40079": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Andrew J. Gambino", "degreeCandidacy": null } }, "40080": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Xiaoye Zhou", "degreeCandidacy": "Masters" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tWhen people go online and search for information, how do personalization of the content and bandwagon cues impact their perception? This study designs a 2 (personalization: present vs. absent) x 2 (bandwagon: high vs. low) between-subject online experiment (N=267) that examines the effect of interface cues in web sites on users' perceptions in the context of restaurant recommendation web site. Results showed the significant main and interaction effects of personalization cues and bandwagon cues on web sites on users’ perceptions, especially their attitudes toward the individual restaurant, intentions to visit the restaurant, positive attitudes toward the web site, and intentions to revisit and recommend the web site. Based on such significant findings, theoretical and practical implications for future research on the effect of interface cues on user’ perceptions are provided.
\n\n\tH1a: Higher levels of personalization cue will lead to more positive perceptions of the individual restaurants.
\n\tH1b: Higher levels of personalization cue will lead to greater behavioral intentions toward the individual restaurants.
\n\tH2a: Higher levels of personalization cue will lead to more positive attitudes toward the web site.
\n\tH2b: Higher levels of personalization cue will lead to greater behavioral intention toward the web site.
\n\tH3a: Higher levels of bandwagon cue will lead to more positive attitudes toward the restaurant.
\n\tH3b: Higher levels of bandwagon cue will lead to greater behavioral intention toward the restaurant.
\n\tH4a: Higher levels of bandwagon cue will lead to more positive attitudes toward the web site.
\n\tH4b: Higher levels of bandwagon cue will lead to greater behavioral intention toward the web site.
\n\tRQ1: Will there be any interaction effects between personalization of web site content and bandwagon cues on users’ attitudes toward the restaurant?
\n\tRQ2: Will there be any interaction effects between personalization of web site content and bandwagon cues on behavioral intentions toward the restaurant?
\n\tRQ3: Will there be any interaction effects between personalization of web site content and bandwagon cues on attitudes toward the web site?
\n\tRQ4: Will there be any interaction effects between personalization of web site content and bandwagon cues on behavioral intentions toward the web site?
\n\tRQ5: Will personalization cues indirectly influence behavioral intentions toward the web site through multiple mediators of perceived relevance and attitudes toward the web site?
\n\tA 2 (personalization: present vs. absent)x 2(bandwagon cues: high vs. low) between-subject online experiment was designed. The experiment had two sessions: one session included the pre-questionnaire that asked users' personal preferences of foods so that web site could provide the results that are tailored to users (personalization condition) and the other session did not have the pre-questionnaire (non-personalization condition), instead participants received the randomized content that are not matched with users' personal preferences. Participants (N=267) were asked to answer questions concerning their perception of a mock-up restaurant recommendation web site named Foodies.com, which approximates existing restaurant review web sites (e.g., Yelp.com, Urbanspoon.com) that provide personalized choices of restaurants based on users’ preferences (e.g., types of cuisines, budget, location).
\n\n\t
![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/2.png\")
![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/3.png\")
![\"\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/4.png\")
Results\n\tThe findings showed the significant support for personalization of web site content that leads to higher attitudes and intentions toward the individual restaurant, as well as intentions to use the web site as a whole. Higher bandwagon cues had a positive effect on attitudes and intentions towards the individual restaurant and attitudes and intentions to use the web site. There was one two-way interaction found, for intentions to visit the restaurant, the bandwagon cues showed the larger impact when people received the non-personalized content. There was no support for all other hypothesized interactions. We also found the serial multiple mediation effect that showed the significant indirect effect of the personalized web site content on users’ behavioral intentions toward the web site through both mediators of perceived relevance and attitudes toward the web site in serial manner.
\n\n\t![\"5\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/5.png\")
\n\t
\n\n\tThe results of this study add to the growing body of literature regarding the effects of interface cues. This study showed rather large effects, particularly for bandwagon cues, that support models that incorporate heuristic information processing approaches. Consistent with our predictions, bandwagon cues were found to have a positive effect on attitudes and intentions. Further, personalization had a positive effect as well. A significant interaction effect was found on behavioral intentions towards the restaurant with the personalization cue moderating the bandwagon effect. Moreover, findings of this study suggest important practical implications for both business owners and web site designers. Since customers rely more on bandwagon cues rather than personalization cues, restaurant owners should focus their efforts on improving the quality of overall services to customers who visit their restaurants so that their store can ultimately receive better ratings and positive reviews. For web site developers and designers, out results suggest that they should provide easy decisions for users, rather than drowning them in too much information.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31060" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2015-01-06T02:11:52-05:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32707, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "f6c8d9b2-0a81-4e90-9b05-002b161a51b9", "siteSettingsId": 32707, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20937, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Me, Myself, and My Avatar: The effects of Avatar on SNW (Social Networking) Users’ Attitude toward Website, Ad, and PSA", "slug": "me-myself-and-my-avatar-the-effects-of-avatar-on-snw-social-networking-user", "uri": "medialab/research-article/me-myself-and-my-avatar-the-effects-of-avatar-on-snw-social-networking-user", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:27:34-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:07:15-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32707, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/me-myself-and-my-avatar-the-effects-of-avatar-on-snw-social-networking-user", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/me-myself-and-my-avatar-the-effects-of-avatar-on-snw-social-networking-user", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40068": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Youjeong Kim", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tYoujeong Kim & S. Shyam Sundar (2008, May). Me, myself, and my Avatar: The effects of avatar on SNW (Social Networking) users’ attitude toward website, ad, and PSA. Paper presented at the 27th annual conference of the Advertising and Consumer Psychology, Philadelphia.
\n\n\tThis study explores both the effects of avatar presence and customization on users’ attitudes toward social networking sites, as well as embedded Ad and PSA, (Public Service Ad). Based on ‘implicit egotism’ that human beings inherently “gravitate toward things that resemble the self” (p. 800), this study predicted that avatar users might have positive attitude toward their ‘self-resembled creature (i.e., avatar)’, and in turn, the positive affect is transferred to the evaluation of website and ads. Furthermore, this study found that avatar successfully increases self-awareness observing virtual self, and highlights the concept of self-preservation when encountering a message regarding a threat to one’s survival. Finally, this study firstly attempted to examine the effects of customization in the context of avatars and psychological mechanisms in order to connect their associations.
\n\n\tH1: Avatar users are more likely to perceive the risk on their physical body-related health than non-avatar users.
\n\n\tH2: Avatar users are more likely to evaluate websites and ads (a commercial ad, and a Public Service Ad) more positively, than non-avatar users.
\n\n\tAvatar customization accompanies the concept of ‘control’ over something (S. S. Sundar & Marathe, 2006) and imbues users with a sense of empowerment (Zimmerman, 1990). Theorizing the customization model, Sundar (2008) emphasized the role of self as a “creator” and “source” for filtering individual needs and connecting technological affordances that customization provides (i.e., interactivity, modality, and navigability) and consequent psychological outcomes (i.e., cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes) (see Figure 1)
\n\n\t
\n\t![\"Agency](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/avatar1.JPG\"){kind=avatar}
\n\tFigure 1. Sundar's (2008) Agency Model of Customization
\n\n\tH3: Participants who customize their avatars are more likely to evaluate the website, ad, and PSA positively than participants who are not allowed to customize their avatars or do not have avatars.
\n\t
\n\tRQ1: What are psychological mediators of avatar customization on users’ attitudes toward website and ads, and body related-health message?
\n\tThirty participants were assigned to one of two experimental conditions in a between-subjects experiment. Before exposure to the stimuli, participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire related to their magazine purchasing behaviors and reading habits. After filling out the questionnaire, half the participants viewed sexually suggestive ads while the other half viewed non-suggestive ads. After exposure, participants were asked to fill out two more questionnaires pertaining to quality and effectiveness of the ads as well as measures of self-esteem and body satisfaction.
\n\n\t
\n\n\t![\"Cyworld](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/avatar2.JPG\"){kind=avatar}
\n\tFigure 2. Cyworld website and ads which were manipulated for the study.
\n\n\t
\n\n\t![\"Manipulation](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/avatar3.JPG\"){kind=avatar}
\n\tFigure 3. The manipulation of avatar creation
\n\n\tH1: H1 was partly supported. Only perceived risk on skin cancer was significantly associated with the avatar group, F (1, 64) = 4.13, p =.04.
\n\tH2: None of DVs were significant. Therefore, H2 was not supported.
\n\tH3: Three separate ANOVA tests for the effect of customizing avatars also revealed that only the attitude toward the PSA was marginally significant, F (2, 63) = 2.69, p = .07. However, the result’s direction was as opposite as this study hypothesized. Therefore, H3 was not supported.
\n\tRQ1: No significant mediators were found.
\n\tThis study expected that the presence of avatar increases the concern about the user’s physical body and it was supported by data. The result showed that avatar users perceived higher risk on skin cancer than non-avatar users. It means that avatar successfully increases self-awareness observing virtual self, and highlights the concept of self-preservation when encountering a message regarding a threat to one’s survival. This study also found that although avatar which resembles self-appearance generates positive feelings, it is hard to assume that the feeling is able to influence the cognitive evaluation. This study firstly attempted to examine the effects of customization in the context of avatars and found that customizing avatar group showed the lowest favorability toward website. And, interestingly, non-customizing avatar group showed the highest favorability. The reason we believe is due to the frustration of avatar customizers. As we describe in limitation section, avatar customizers might expect that their avatars play a ‘role’ in the site. But, when they find that their avatars do nothing and just appear on the corner while browsing the site, they could be disappointed and it could affect their evaluations about the website.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31068", "31074", "31078" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2014-12-19T04:24:00-05:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32703, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "04d7aadf-25bf-4ed5-ad93-df620927f359", "siteSettingsId": 32703, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20935, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Is it Tailoring or is it Agency?", "slug": "is-it-tailoring-or-is-it-agency", "uri": "medialab/research-article/is-it-tailoring-or-is-it-agency", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:27:33-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:54:54-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32703, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/is-it-tailoring-or-is-it-agency", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/is-it-tailoring-or-is-it-agency", "subtitle": "Unpacking the Psychological Appeal of Customized News", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40062": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sampada Marathe", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tThis paper was presented at the annual convention of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, San Francisco, CA, 2006.
\n\n\tMass communication on the internet is getting increasingly demassified with the rapid diffusion of customization technologies. From the background color of our computer desktops to the faceplates on our cell phones and organization of music on iPods, we are now able to individualize a wide variety of products and services in this digital age. Theoretical understanding of the psychological appeal of customization, however, is still in its nascent stages. What makes customization so appealing? Is it the automatic tailoring of content (personalization) to meet one’s individual needs and preferences? Or the sense of agency and ownership created by acting as one’s own gatekeeper (customization)? Or is it simply a novelty effect? This paper tests these competing theoretical propositions by way of a between-subjects experiment (N = 85) which exposed Power users as well as regular users to a news-aggregator Website that was either personalized, customized, or neither.
\n\n\tIf tailoring (i.e. obtaining tailored content) is the underlying mechanism, then there should be no differences between Personalization (P) and Customization (C) in promoting attitudes toward content, but both would be more positive than a control Website (W) that does not feature tailoring at all. That is, tailoring would predict P = C > W.
\n\n\tH1a: Customization and Personalization will not differ in their contribution to positive attitudes toward content, but both will be higher than a control condition.
\n\n\tBut, if the sense of ownership and identity imbued by the self acting as the source is psychologically critical, then we would expect support for the agency argument, with results showing the following pattern: C > P = W.
\n\n\tH1b: Customization is significantly higher than Personalization, with the latter being no different from the control, in promoting positive attitudes toward content.
\n\n\tH2: Power Users will show more positive attitudes toward content in customization condition over personalization condition whereas the reverse would be true for non-Power Users.
\n\n\tH3: Results will be moderated by users’ familiarity with the customizable site.
\n\n\tIn order to test these hypotheses, we conducted a 3 (C, P, W) x 2 (Power User, Non-Power User) fully-crossed factorial experiment whereby study participants were exposed to Google News over two sessions. They were either exposed to the Website as is control condition (W condition) or a personalized version (P condition) in the second session (based on data of their browsing behavior during the first session) or a customized version (C condition). They were then asked to fill out a paper-and-pencil questionnaire measuring their attitudes toward the news content on the site.
\n\n\tThe results showed no main effects for customization manipulation, thus providing no support for global hypotheses H1a and H1b. However, this result is likely to be due to significant two-way and three-way interactions indicating the moderating role of Power User-ship and Site Familiarity upon users’ responses to customization, lending support to H2 and H3. In general, we found C > P for Power Users and P > C for Non-Power Users.
\n\n\t![\"results\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/marathe_1_1.jpg\")
\n\tPower Usership X Condition interaction
\n\n\t
\n\n\t![\"results\"](\"https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/assets/uploads/marathe_1_2.jpg\")
\n\tPower Usership X Condition X Previous Visit interaction
\n\n\tIn terms of the theoretical explanations motivating this research, data lend support to the mediating role of agency in the case of Power Users and to that of tailoring in the case of Non-Power Users. That is to say, relatively inexpert users are likely to be impressed with a Website if it presents content tailored to their interests, but Power Users will not be. For them, the site ought to provide the additional facility to express their agency by specifying their content preferences and interests. Only then will they be positively disposed toward the site. On the flip side, while Power Users do not make a distinction between P and W conditions (they are equally unimpressed with both), non-Power Users tend to penalize the site for demanding customization by rating it more negatively than the control site. This tendency is however moderated by users’ familiarity with the site, with only those users who have visited the site before showing the negative trend. The fact that first-time users did not show this might be an indirect indication of novelty effect. They were perhaps impressed by the affordance made possible by customization technology but may not have been able to get it to deliver high-quality content.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31060" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2014-12-19T01:46:29-05:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32695, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "db43bde2-398b-4915-840e-b66a081503be", "siteSettingsId": 32695, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20933, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Using 3-d Visualization in a Fitness Center Website: The Role of Modality and Source Interactivity", "slug": "using-3-d-visualization-in-a-fitness-center-website-the-role-of-modality-an", "uri": "medialab/research-article/using-3-d-visualization-in-a-fitness-center-website-the-role-of-modality-an", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:27:32-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2021-11-03T10:07:11-04:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32695, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/using-3-d-visualization-in-a-fitness-center-website-the-role-of-modality-an", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/using-3-d-visualization-in-a-fitness-center-website-the-role-of-modality-an", "subtitle": null, "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40050": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Dou, X", "degreeCandidacy": null } }, "40051": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Kumar, S", "degreeCandidacy": null } }, "40052": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Lu, Y", "degreeCandidacy": null } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tGiven the increasing attention of using the Internet for health intervention in the past years, this study investigated whether using 3-D visualization in a fitness center web site would result in better knowledge, attitude, and behavioral intention towards a fitness center compared to 2-D static images. Unlike previous studies that characterized 3-D visualization with media richness and interactivity, this study adopted two types of interactivity (modality interactivity and source interactivity) from Sundar’s (2007) interactivity model to explain the effect of on 3-D visualization.
\n\n\tAccording to Sundar’s (2007) interactivity model, modality interactivity refers to “the variety of modalities that it offers for the user to experience the various parts of a website” (p. 90). In addition, source interactivity refers to “the extent to which the user feels that he or she is the source or gatekeeper” (p. 92). Both modality interactivity and source interactivity will increase users’ engagements with web site content, which will as a result, yield better cognitive, attitudinal, and behavioral outcomes.
\n\n\tCompared with 2-D static images, 3-D visualization is high in modality interactivity since it allows users to see the product in a series of continuous actions that have greater appeal to our senses. In addition, 3-D visualization in a web site is high in source interactivity since it often provides users with control over the content, such as allowing user to view the images from their desired angles. Thus, we hypothesize that;
\n\n\tH1: Participants who are exposed to a fitness center website with high modality interactivity will have better psychological outcomes (knowledge, attitude, and behavioral intention) towards the fitness center compared to participants who are exposed to a low modality interactivity website.
\n\n\tH2: Participants who are exposed to a fitness center website with high source modality interactivity will have better psychological outcomes towards the fitness center compared to participants who are exposed to a low source interactivity website.
\n\n\tH3: The higher the interactivity, the better the psychological outcomes.
\n\n\tBased on previous literature, we proposed three variables that would mediate the relationship between 3-D visualization and psychological outcomes.
\n\n\tH4: Sense of presence will mediate the relationships between modality interactivity and psychological outcomes
\n\n\tH5: Sense of presence will mediate the relationships between source interactivity and psychological outcomes
\n\n\tH6: Perceived control will mediate the relationships between source credibility and psychological outcomes
\n\n\tH7: Perceived coolness will mediate the relationships between modality interactivity and psychological outcomes
\n\n\tH8: Perceived coolness will mediate the relationships between source interactivity and psychological outcomes
\n\n\tA 2X2 between subjects experiment was conducted using online questionnaires. Participants (N=205) were randomly assigned to interact with one of the four web sites containing; 1) six different images of the fitness center, 2) the same six images but each image could be zoomed in and out by using the scroll button as well as moved by clicking and dragging the mouse, 3) a 27 seconds long continuously streaming video of 360-degree view of the same fitness center with a frame rate of 15 frames per second, and 4) a 360-degree view of the center that could be zoomed in and out as well as panned in all the directions (up down, left, right). After viewing the website, the participants were asked to answer follow-up questions regarding their knowledge, attitudes, and behavioral intentions toward the fitness center.
\n\n\tThe results provided support to the primary hypotheses that high level of modality and source interactivity leads to better psychological outcomes. In addition, presence, coolness, and control are found to mediate the relationship between two types of interactivities and psychological outcomes. Specifically, presence and coolness mediate the effect of modality interactivity on attitude and knowledge. In turn, control and coolness are found to mediate the effect of source interactivity on knowledge and one of the sub-categories of behavioral intentions, recommendation.
\n\n\t
\n\tCompared to 2-D static images, a fitness center website using 3-D visualization can yield better cognitive, attitudinal and behavioral outcomes. This is mainly because 3-D visualization makes people feel as if they are \"there\" (presence) and provides people with a sense of control over the content (perceived control). Presence and perceived control induces people to feel that the website is cool, which in turn results in better psychological outcomes.
", "submittedBy": null, "submittersEmailAddress": null, "mediaLabResearchCategory": [ "31056", "31061" ] }, { "sectionId": "11", "typeId": "19", "authorId": "23151", "postDate": "2014-12-19T01:27:00-05:00", "expiryDate": null, "newParentId": null, "deletedWithEntryType": false, "id": 32691, "tempId": null, "draftId": null, "revisionId": null, "isProvisionalDraft": false, "uid": "51f5664a-f7fc-4966-bbea-a850905b1858", "siteSettingsId": 32691, "fieldLayoutId": 55, "contentId": 20931, "enabled": true, "archived": false, "siteId": 1, "title": "Attitudes toward personalized content:", "slug": "attitudes-toward-personalized-content", "uri": "medialab/research-article/attitudes-toward-personalized-content", "dateCreated": "2021-10-27T15:27:31-04:00", "dateUpdated": "2022-01-14T14:54:51-05:00", "dateLastMerged": null, "dateDeleted": null, "trashed": false, "isNewForSite": false, "canonicalId": 32691, "ref": "mediaEffectsResearch/attitudes-toward-personalized-content", "status": "live", "structureId": null, "url": "https://www.bellisario.psu.edu/medialab/research-article/attitudes-toward-personalized-content", "subtitle": "An experimental investigation of the psychological effects of customized web portals", "mediaEffectsFacultySupervisor": [ "23150" ], "studentResearchers": { "40044": { "type": "studentResearchers", "enabled": true, "collapsed": false, "fields": { "studentName": "Sriram Kalyanaraman", "degreeCandidacy": "Ph.D" } } }, "researchAbstract": "\n\tConsistent advances in technology have paralleled the ability of mass media to deliver customized messages to audiences. The evolution of media--from print to electronic--has witnessed increased, and more effective, dissemination of individualized messages. The advent of the World Wide Web, however, has truly revolutionized the media's ability to deliver customized content. The uniqueness of the Web medium lies in its capacity to customize content according to individual specifications. That is, unlike any other medium, the Web, by the use of such elements as interactivity, can identify and target single users. It is conceivable, then, that users who are exposed to highly customized Websites may perceive such Websites in a positive light. That is, they may be psychologically affected by customized messages, and show more positive attitudes toward a Website offering customized information. This dissertation examines the effects of customization in one of the most popular of e-venues: the portal. Specifically, it examines the relationship between the level of customization (low, medium, high) in Web portals and attitude toward the portal. It identifies several possible outcomes of customization and hypothesizes that greater levels of customization lead to increased perceptions of relevance, involvement, interactivity, community, and novelty, which in turn lead to a more positive attitude toward the portal. It details the methods and results of a pilot study (N = 30) designed to examine the research question. It identifies several methodological weaknesses of the pilot study and proposes a refined experimental design ( N = 60) to better understand the relationship between customization and attitude toward the portal. The results indicate that customization is a psychologically significant variable because higher levels of customization result in more positive attitudes toward the portal, and this relationship is mediated by users' perceptions of relevance, involvement, interactivity, and novelty. In addition, customization also has behavioral effects because it affects users' Web browsing activity. Theoretical and practical implications, limitations, and suggestions for future research are discussed.
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